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contents
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# ~; X4 |3 r# G f4 H1 Introduction ................................. 1
. i0 b" l: d a# J$ @& `1 hWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1/ \ l# O) @& N& Q: h
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2( {# O4 ?$ e1 b; W2 z: C8 g7 c
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
l) ^& T' E4 e$ d3 d* Z2 FWhy Measure .......................... 3
7 \8 `' i h7 u9 S" @/ Z) BObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
) Y [4 h( {% Q: CDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
: N" x p4 @7 J1 X' OTroubleshooting ........................ 58 U( j. |4 r$ k6 J
Validation or Verification ................. 72 R0 p' F4 u% f: m9 e
Terminology ........................... 7
2 O2 Q6 X; W2 \. l& Q8 s8 c! y 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
1 D3 f5 Y% F; B6 HCause No Damage ............................ 11
$ t. D1 c6 G; h( ]& aMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11+ Z H$ n3 c7 a7 k
Validate the Test Setup and , ~/ N5 q0 l5 u# \# b) J# \
Measurement Limits ........................ 12/ ^, L5 H3 e3 K) ?, o2 w) F# ~
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
8 K2 B' I4 ~6 q4 hNoninvasive versus Invasive
' [+ `6 N: ?* |5 KMeasurement ........................ 145 q+ M; v. `' w
In situ Measurement .................... 14
; g# y! X1 d! |9 e4 S0 ~Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
, `$ A K+ I" x! H! |8 HDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15$ U$ u2 q9 R8 W; N3 c& k2 j% v
The Test Engineer and Contact
+ G0 J s& e* _$ t _* n6 {Information .......................... 157 N) O% F. S" l$ F6 F9 Q1 I
The Purpose of the Test .................. 16( q& L/ c5 y6 H; Y0 C: [0 [8 f& b
Simulated or Expected Results if . `- x; F! X0 A# ~% ^3 g
Available ............................ 17
0 l# m7 q1 r5 R' {; ^ SThe Date and Physical Location : D, ?( ]1 s- B. ^4 G. {. T$ t
of the Testing ........................ 180 q- G4 w1 }, a2 k* u2 k' s
Operational Test Environment
x; y. L3 l/ b! r* d; w Sand Conditions ....................... 18
8 ]- L4 j z+ D% x( v; wThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
) j1 a& s) O0 U* B4 Y' z(Including Probes) and Verification That
' M$ K- z" r" @They Are Calibrated .................. 18
0 S: [8 l4 b# A& s- I4 X0 g4 sSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
' |: r }/ G& b, W mMeasurement Annotations and
' N! B, G3 o" x/ }Comments .......................... 200 M# b- m% U" K. E9 \
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
& b5 s9 U: P/ M% p1 l3 R" A
- k4 O/ ?! A' Y: Q9 n3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 214 c n' N' b( _8 C& ^0 Q/ G* }2 X
Sensitivity ................................... 21
I* G2 q% F4 J1 }3 gNoise Floor .................................. 22% o4 P# [4 ^) @8 u8 s
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
2 R3 l) ^# A) aNoise Density ................................ 27
* r! j$ j+ D! o1 x: B3 lSignal Averaging ............................. 31
* k2 i' P/ ^0 n* E# a: }( W2 {Scaling ...................................... 33
' T# e" f N% G+ Y1 s% qAttenuators .................................. 34
6 P& Q+ p( b, {, [. f4 yPreamplifiers ................................. 35! k$ [; u4 G e3 n0 v: V$ z3 R# S
Linear versus Log Display ............... 364 H$ C' @/ l7 _- c: z, j
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
) ~( O6 N4 J c% i2 xFrequency Domain ...................... 38
2 B4 y$ a4 p' xGain and Phase ......................... 389 b ^& O, X8 L! P0 m" C' ?
S-Parameters ........................... 38+ T# D$ Q( I. j# p' T4 M) F8 ?
Impedance ............................. 39
) @8 \1 o% f: G& cTime Domain ........................... 406 ?" B5 ]) o! w9 `! o3 [2 h0 F
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42
9 `! o0 k4 C4 t* X1 ^9 dComparing Domains .................... 44; C8 w1 R% w0 V* O O3 O/ @# i* |4 q7 m
Endnotes .................................... 46
, d# C3 w0 g8 W* d 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47! L! H, q0 t9 w7 y4 W
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
$ o, M/ `4 X8 W4 b3 y" U% iNetwork Analyzers ......................... 47
& N0 Y8 q" u. w/ `( eOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 495 f9 }3 z; U. N
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
) s: W0 N5 i" e& XOscilloscopes ................................. 50
. W9 m8 z8 ^6 ?- J) k( HTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
' x3 n; M/ Z9 BRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
& r3 g, j( z* c. m) W$ W. NTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 E5 c* d( j) K8 i* t: {7 j* R
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 545 y" N. {' k/ q3 Y: U( T: X' e
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
5 } Y0 J2 [ B: V! QTektronix MSO5204 ..................... 565 T: Z, v) E! B0 N* J% E, ^( @
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56; @9 P! n, D, b+ _& z
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
, ] V7 i, r8 C7 g# w: \0 NOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59$ S3 _+ e, r, N
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
& t1 ~. b! e7 z7 cTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
+ U9 w0 L; r! }6 ?1 ?* Y* T/ zAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 602 u2 P* Y1 s# R/ z: w
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 616 t. f( d+ M5 H! T" J0 O9 G' h1 p
Signal Generators ............................. 62* J; V; k# M, m* r! j/ e' d
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
; T9 A/ e+ C7 r2 o/ f* {( C+ k1 M3 s0 nTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
e, v: _% M* z4 T7 ?$ y5 d8 j$ P) C6 ePicotest G5100A ........................ 63
, N& i3 O; v8 j, R% z6 c) c
' v. Y( A8 j) h) }4 sTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
, t2 q# p5 R2 P# {. R8 g- b2 S) y2 r% cTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65) v- j* T, }0 z$ c( s
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
7 o" r! M. b1 ~6 x9 Q' } 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
- k ~ C+ W& X, ` u/ QVoltage Probes ................................ 694 ` I0 W) C" Y0 j" _
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
$ t& S8 Z- S3 ~ y5 s2 i8 R' \Flattening the Probe Response ............ 729 F0 D* P. I0 W# ]4 X* o
Confirming Measurements ............... 740 o; q9 ~" Z; v, X
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75 Z \ d1 y1 \5 n
Passive Probes .......................... 774 S6 G8 B* a [ _1 ~
Active Probes .......................... 79& h, h1 p$ Q# X( j' X2 p( ]
Differential Probes ...................... 798 O% q4 @$ v: z+ O* ^2 y+ K
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
' Z: x, O/ A0 u/ \) O! yOther Connections ...................... 91
; c( x9 E+ N" A9 x+ ZEndnotes .................................... 91
/ P4 o: D" n* J. f& f# ` 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
' X: D2 w! K- |! [8 WNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93: D% J3 D0 g. q* A9 Y9 V! U
Internal Noise .......................... 95
" T8 o* K6 q/ |( Y8 JPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
! Z7 B4 g! c" r! LOutput Impedance ...................... 99
- X6 f0 D& s' z6 ~. L; aReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99, ?4 K+ x. L, z: c. Y% M3 {. k
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
{( R2 j/ J0 H' c' p/ g/ v' FImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101
$ S. l3 ^; r" T# Q" v* dImpact on Noise ........................ 102
. P7 L8 i7 T& z& p' vImpact on PSRR ........................ 102- S, @& R* h. B3 q+ i% n
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103) n5 s! R# e: |$ U7 i5 U
How Poor Stability Propagates through
8 [' }: S7 r) R z9 gthe System ................................. 103
; \5 I6 F" E3 {- W3 R, K5 D2 Q* j; ^Adding the PDNs ....................... 106. n5 u2 `" ]0 e' o- ~9 ^! m% @
Endnotes .................................... 108
! @' U* ~6 z. t( y7 M u" O 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109, T/ C+ \! x4 s6 B& ^( }9 Q' C. q
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109/ |0 s3 K7 S& I J
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
8 B X/ r+ R/ n" H2 c' V% J, KTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123" y2 _- ]' W" b# [( h( B
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139
+ N7 e! W6 i! }Impedance Adapters .................... 142
; {/ {' [" l7 f7 Y9 x5 Z# w9 nEndnotes .................................... 148
. Z1 {3 B6 M \8 a- b5 |! x$ Q. \ ? 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
; [0 F" K7 P; z' ~# uStability and Why It Matters .................... 1516 W. w. M1 ~" ?1 D7 r0 ]
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1510 B1 V4 o$ q, a
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
7 X; M8 w0 h8 G/ V# P- vMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 1532 u$ C: q7 b g; a3 G+ ?+ M! B
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154, v5 S3 [& S, A: |8 i5 O
x. z" F# c, c. o8 H* U
Contents( J/ d- B, U# W" O+ Z, d
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159) Y" u& G8 f. J8 c5 T( V
Injection Devices ........................ 161, S' j6 a+ a- e1 S3 Z. N/ `
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 1644 F% |4 P: P% |* F5 t# q/ x
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169; T1 r, q0 }/ o$ k9 q
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
S6 Q( w1 a3 t. ?1 ]Forward Measurements .................. 171
$ k9 Q$ ]1 {7 d- x% q# bMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
9 U4 A& a) W0 h% ]9 l* ?2 y; gNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
. y* e F8 V8 u6 f7 p9 H% @Endnotes .................................... 1792 H7 Y2 {# @4 r2 q* Z& D
+ y2 z2 s# [+ ]; I$ t1 _3 x' p9 g. R
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 1813 N3 u% g1 [1 b7 e$ _! D
Measurement Methods ........................ 1821 o! a' @4 @! i% \: _ ` Y
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
0 `0 U! _: W7 A. O& ?( \Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
, ]8 }' P8 `) L7 D- E5 c& w: S% i5 }+ MModulating the Input ......................... 183
; Y- t r& n. M1 `' s* l6 T/ FLine Injector ............................ 184
8 V7 T/ K- a. M$ w$ ]; z( FCurrent Injector ......................... 188$ b# }6 C% X3 ]
DC Amplifier ........................... 189
: ?3 N' [- T1 M0 N3 `Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
6 ] n9 L& Z; r" ^$ K# [3 KVNA .................................. 189
% H3 F& ~/ @, h) a/ f! i. JSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 1893 N5 v3 S+ `7 t) ^
Oscilloscope ............................ 1900 n* e6 u' N2 y. l! [% J5 ^
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
) J+ ]& n7 M$ E6 ^; ]7 Y& q8 KEndnotes .................................... 200
! h6 x% ~0 s% o) ] 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
/ e, b( p6 d0 K4 ~2 aReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201# d8 Y9 D. u! M+ w% \" p5 b
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
/ N( U: r E+ r: {0 `Shunt Regulators ....................... 2016 h/ O' ?7 j- x% L& ~% Q% o
POL Regulators ......................... 203" ^" V+ v G3 ^1 F0 M9 x2 z
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204$ i$ F. u+ X5 R/ z
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204
+ C: ~: M' G1 K1 M* RCurrent Injector ......................... 205; `# V3 ]* Y4 O* C) d; N
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205' `% D3 L/ \; E- j4 |' J4 t, [
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205
/ E5 }# c3 ~& yCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2059 _7 b3 U7 r$ t3 F7 x, i. I' p; C% g
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207) v; D( a% }1 D
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209
, f7 R- Z8 T" K" {2 t+ o2 s( O9 KIndirect Measurement ......................... 209) U/ f: r4 _, E8 h5 d9 E% P. \
Endnotes .................................... 216- k8 w" n2 ]" a% t# E* M5 v' K
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217% n8 F i: o/ m, ~) D# c3 ~
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
- M, V) A( e* r# ?; K4 R( YCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217! K: o/ v; P2 z* a
Slew Rate .............................. 219
* V- v6 W N! Z3 i$ mCurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
8 _4 U: n: R; q! _ Contents
# h- i& ?& g- c0 F, nxi
9 Z8 Z6 ]1 {4 f) g3 r3 [9 |Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 2232 U( |8 W3 M: k: z' B
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
+ D' ^; @7 G R; wNotes about Averaging .................. 224: l$ Z" _, R) Q0 ?; o- u
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226% e9 L7 e7 W4 i% X
Endnotes .................................... 232
% L! _; G% M7 J8 |! d 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
3 I5 u, Y+ d4 b7 USelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234, x U# C2 \* z4 r' \! D0 X- s8 Z o
In or Out of System ..................... 234
4 e5 T6 \5 C0 w2 y; I( ]5 C. w) dDirect or Indirect ....................... 234
0 N2 \3 O0 L5 X/ o. U: {Time or Spectral Domain ................. 2348 B* P& \( X' @: f' Z$ v* F
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235$ T4 m; a/ k* x$ j
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
& z/ p$ q5 H. A$ LActive Scope Probes ..................... 236
`6 K7 H6 D3 Y/ G t2 p' nDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
) r) K; w8 K. O: A: B0 G+ f4 l; q+ CChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237' i& p1 D6 c( o3 q' W
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252: p3 W) z, Y/ q; s
Endnotes .................................... 252$ a, M% y9 ]( b y
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
* N3 V+ P0 Y/ J2 S: [2 h4 e+ h# U6 ERelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
2 L) z% u, \6 iCascading Rise Times ................... 256 @7 T3 I0 K% c2 F; o A
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
5 g, R* _; A, b0 \9 V' JLimiting ............................. 2576 W ?0 w3 D. f5 Y: Z" G
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
* ~) p# q5 [6 Y) x5 V/ `2 ^Interpolation ................................. 264& W/ t0 `. r, y3 M
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
2 A1 I7 p. ~! ]& L- d, O) HEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
- Q u4 ~) n+ E1 H, |6 x$ vThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267$ ]; C# D& a) _; u2 ?) d8 q
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269/ ~0 ^3 G5 N% L9 L: _
Probes ....................................... 269% f) T8 Q) t8 V9 u( [9 J
Endnotes .................................... 2737 D9 P( V# r; I' B- z. F
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
: E! o. G4 b! U0 i. y7 HThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275. D& s( l6 e9 X k: L" S& J
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
7 O H& E8 Y( K- P3 \& x9 X/ ~$ ZProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
# i' j+ q3 H- w2 SThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
4 `7 `; `8 W; R/ e, nSpectrum Gating .............................. 281
0 T9 L3 H, x: L# qEndnotes .................................... 2959 r8 j% j7 B$ y# _+ z
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
* f# n0 q4 @5 v3 {4 W0 K5 \Time Domain ................................. 2970 @ G$ N5 N# z$ T; p9 w: G' r
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
0 ^' Q7 ~" w7 D0 f) Z: UCalibration ................................... 299
8 Q7 {$ I W8 S0 H! J2 DReference Plane ............................... 300
& |' P( t2 S- R Gxii
% A g8 v( E: W: K Contents
. [# {2 X- Y' B Y2 oSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303( S! ~1 d, A/ n- a3 M% C
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
/ \3 L/ L" e9 L7 \) H) p; qEstimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
; c' q. O1 t4 HS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
4 D" Q8 z! t6 i, v4 ]1 F' `Endnotes .................................... 316% v+ V. S& {# m( z
Index ....................................... 319 |
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