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contents
# K& _/ o. B F4 o. k6 I" U+ h0 [& I7 Q1 D2 V2 c5 V ]0 \! v( a7 S
1 Introduction ................................. 1
5 c0 m# W X) q2 P! R IWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
1 x @' B4 {# U8 j% f- `Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 23 B$ g) p' n) V8 w/ h, Y
The General Format of This Book ............... 20 b4 N9 V8 V0 K1 [$ ]" m
Why Measure .......................... 34 p6 T8 D: D! o3 m' H
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
; \0 E8 z- i& f/ N+ |Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5# b5 H* N; H- q) B" A0 A
Troubleshooting ........................ 5
0 {* v6 u7 v& Q" e: K& p4 G( f: kValidation or Verification ................. 7
' s: g, g& x9 o }1 t( _+ ?Terminology ........................... 7( ~* k4 i- T; G; [6 G4 X
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
B( Z: K7 ?5 F/ [5 P1 j; HCause No Damage ............................ 11
+ S* ]( Z( Z* U, EMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11- Z t0 S" h! P- |. r& p% E" G6 e8 m, r
Validate the Test Setup and
3 T" g5 H! z% ^0 e1 lMeasurement Limits ........................ 12+ p1 u. m V9 M% [( P
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 145 Y2 W0 F$ q8 Z5 F8 W! u, E
Noninvasive versus Invasive
% b1 A2 ]2 ^5 a5 kMeasurement ........................ 14- a- u3 \. M- @0 M, ^5 J- t6 h# ]" D" h
In situ Measurement .................... 14
q/ u0 k0 x: S/ Z7 h. Z) IIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14- s% k) f4 B* H V0 E
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
& G' B* I) B" |' OThe Test Engineer and Contact
* c+ ~6 I3 K: t. `8 |Information .......................... 15
: b" l" A' c$ y uThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
" n5 E3 ?& E/ zSimulated or Expected Results if
9 g4 Z B: V, M$ NAvailable ............................ 17
s) d4 [$ U$ Y+ k1 S1 A8 [- JThe Date and Physical Location ; L) v" ]. j0 j# `+ x5 S" v
of the Testing ........................ 18: G* `( ~ n5 O, m D! i
Operational Test Environment " H2 ]" r2 u& t- E2 B5 N5 M
and Conditions ....................... 18
/ r3 p# K6 @( _9 ~& GThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment / d4 X; U( c3 G2 \* U9 e7 B0 r- ?$ f
(Including Probes) and Verification That
, t% j5 i6 S6 i+ b) h; D/ eThey Are Calibrated .................. 18
% i' y# x. d9 w, H: ySetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19! p! e" E% B" J5 _
Measurement Annotations and / p0 X' { H$ p2 q3 c! P
Comments .......................... 20/ c0 t2 q. i5 B7 y' ^
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20: T9 E+ Z5 l- P& p6 [) e1 g' c2 {9 W: d! K
7 P# x! n! l7 ^: g3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
7 D" Z! d: ]; `5 fSensitivity ................................... 21 j0 L! ~+ g3 h) ~; e/ c
Noise Floor .................................. 22
1 t( }9 s5 G; o) @, vDynamic Range .............................. 228 @7 ^- s7 s. Y. i5 q2 \* \$ R/ h
Noise Density ................................ 27" `1 ]$ s/ R* e- C) a+ p
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
' f# i" C/ |3 y" q; A. V9 {8 C1 d0 uScaling ...................................... 33
8 `, @! S J3 t4 J$ ]/ {! yAttenuators .................................. 343 I# a1 V3 G3 p8 E( A+ U8 G
Preamplifiers ................................. 35
$ o5 `7 _' Y5 c: h7 E1 t& @Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
. E5 U2 z0 o) f% ~Measurement Domains ........................ 38
6 Z6 O0 z! _; W9 F* n: a2 hFrequency Domain ...................... 38
8 [4 q8 e1 A: j: i* ^9 Y; T4 w" ~Gain and Phase ......................... 38
2 J: V; {" {( s% `+ xS-Parameters ........................... 38
- [% A2 k, `6 \, C3 MImpedance ............................. 393 q8 ]" [1 b4 n0 j: f1 L/ @5 ^0 |+ P
Time Domain ........................... 40
; ?0 |! Y9 b. f/ WSpectrum Domain ....................... 42
5 P' T+ n; |2 S7 ]! q& l- [' B+ aComparing Domains .................... 44
8 q: J. n4 Z0 M9 b0 B0 ~Endnotes .................................... 46: ^3 Q! d% ?+ ^8 n6 d
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
: x3 `, c, \7 m! aFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector + h5 R/ @$ P2 W N5 s' y/ B/ y/ M! Z
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
, _( A5 ^2 y( z* A7 S# L: g% YOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49) T6 X8 f/ L% @7 i/ f. h3 |7 {% V
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
6 m" |, ^6 N5 }: H6 POscilloscopes ................................. 50
+ y) ~9 d( t( f- \+ ITeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
! `9 E4 |+ J9 TRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
7 a; ]+ d( W( X( K6 e O. u6 ETektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
* o& y# L4 N* o9 ^4 v! m$ |" J9 @3 q1 OTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
0 y- r# l. T0 a7 xTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55" J$ O6 `- @3 g' G6 `& _8 i: |
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56% D( z9 [& s( m1 u5 `
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
( d4 W# n$ @4 B" u. rTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58! O% l" n/ F& t7 s
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
$ o' A1 ~2 i, K. qSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
& e2 ?+ y" w* L; Q' w" ITektronix RSA5106A .................... 59; j2 M0 u: M \
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60$ N& G0 ?+ I6 x, Z5 r
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61. \2 J5 P. o& L, A w4 V3 n6 f
Signal Generators ............................. 62
! {9 G$ O4 t6 S5 Y$ a5 J( ZAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62$ ^$ `0 n9 d3 i. Z
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63: t: Z0 v6 u& Z) x1 u
Picotest G5100A ........................ 639 l8 {: m' B$ l+ Z0 y- J
7 y/ i2 j# s# `% ^Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63" \ M3 C- M- r! |
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
{; q4 X- s, Q; O5 [Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 660 l4 j- y- |; Z2 \; m* y3 R/ g
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
* y6 J. n5 S) j2 I; S, J: b% YVoltage Probes ................................ 699 n) q+ S, Z" m$ `
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70* A$ ?! j$ e! t$ b5 ^ s
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
( A0 A! @$ {0 Q+ Q# r7 DConfirming Measurements ............... 744 |7 B3 p* T. o) x2 _; t
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
# z1 R1 z2 P2 k# KPassive Probes .......................... 77
. ?$ |5 m$ `/ v' k3 l" L2 lActive Probes .......................... 790 W1 ^5 B5 x: h! \" X
Differential Probes ...................... 79/ b7 `$ `3 _% X1 a. P
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
# r- U: h& k+ [9 w+ QOther Connections ...................... 91
" I3 t. N+ ]8 E7 j/ ?! D5 IEndnotes .................................... 91( W3 U' L+ ~8 y# P G( r t
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93& \; A0 @& t8 \% }8 A& [7 i
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
; F* D7 ` B2 M8 P% LInternal Noise .......................... 95$ n, e$ y; ?! m" n _
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
/ H* H4 J3 k. b/ T# o r* lOutput Impedance ...................... 99
/ Q# r4 H" m( v& V" k! M# G. p( ZReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
7 F, B/ }: t& B f$ ?1 ^& LControl Loop Stability ......................... 1010 s) N6 G" D4 j& z* y6 b
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101- |" p0 w9 _. L( j, E7 X) K
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
9 {# P! H1 |6 jImpact on PSRR ........................ 102
6 o' G& j$ P' T V+ r" `4 LImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
' u7 b/ U- Q; M O) fHow Poor Stability Propagates through 3 \7 s$ ?9 k. S8 i
the System ................................. 103
% W# N" t) Y0 H: ~7 [3 ^Adding the PDNs ....................... 1067 r; V7 H" L) \, E( G0 E4 z
Endnotes .................................... 108
7 K* ^; `) n* Y& w0 E* g( t 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
- y% O8 j) x3 u1 ESelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
2 f2 ^8 x. @$ ^1 Q4 j7 [& oSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109: e# l2 r! ^5 k# W o4 R+ w
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
7 m# ]8 |" j% I, H. kCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139
: m7 M8 s; ^, w9 f7 LImpedance Adapters .................... 1420 G% g- Q Q' v. z8 c- ]& ~7 l
Endnotes .................................... 1484 T# j7 m, D4 B; z' ]& |
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
, n- i$ a& k0 n9 K7 _Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151
6 {% B( p3 V) l0 [% HControl Loop Basics ..................... 151
1 ~+ L |+ Y: ?, x+ _9 _ L# [Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
# R, o8 _ H6 V. gMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
% H: ]+ t& ~ i' \Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 1543 j; Q6 r1 n$ X' v" z! a. Z$ v
x
9 d G9 L8 r. o8 G: Z+ N Contents, F/ y7 `8 z1 a, V' J: f- U+ T
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
) Q, F; Q0 U, q8 ]/ tInjection Devices ........................ 161
8 ~/ ]2 `7 p0 V6 ~) aSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
, \) b1 m- f& ?! yClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169& a9 t& L- S) J: s8 T
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170* a' S M7 f4 k* C0 w Y
Forward Measurements .................. 171
. V0 m" j7 D E" u! lMinor Loop Gain ....................... 1710 x8 ?1 m+ Q. y h5 ^
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
( W0 ?: L7 j' E1 ]' }7 ?3 o- y0 VEndnotes .................................... 179% Y/ q' Q* P$ t5 N
* g% l: ]' ]1 y9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181# Y$ b9 i$ `% C _2 T1 U' ~- }
Measurement Methods ........................ 182
- G. | X) X2 {* B( ^ kIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182 o" y9 ?+ ~7 M ^' V$ H
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
Q9 `+ q: B% |2 VModulating the Input ......................... 1833 s+ v) O; I1 a9 l8 |) E; J9 s
Line Injector ............................ 184: C# s4 F! [ E# p1 A" M- D
Current Injector ......................... 188
8 N0 @0 y* I& B, n+ ~% |DC Amplifier ........................... 189
6 r, v6 I# x4 f1 n1 d% ]Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189: a8 w" }9 n$ V. n7 p( W
VNA .................................. 1893 H! k2 ?2 }% q. D
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
+ N, e+ w" t- i n% Y* R2 U( D) OOscilloscope ............................ 190( W; U. C) w, h; C& l
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190- U) {2 ]2 }, x% S- f8 M( J
Endnotes .................................... 200
! d& N& l" _. ~ 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
6 R0 A9 B4 t& z3 `' DReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201; B( A9 D5 k3 ]& v. U. ^, \, o
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201' i9 S; N' G0 R7 @2 a) @
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
& f7 P0 q3 v* b R( ~POL Regulators ......................... 203
: a& u& J. v0 b3 L) l0 q- SOperational Amplifiers .................. 204
" r, _' c- O8 h' E6 C* h: V# vModulating the Output Current ................ 2044 u/ i i0 n0 F2 k2 M6 j
Current Injector ......................... 205- t: f! j4 t# t" X9 L5 }: v5 ]& S0 B
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205
+ |+ _/ k7 y3 {* f+ l( GMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
: |" {- @3 y3 v5 ]) |Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
$ E7 l: w- e2 CMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
: i/ `; E8 o- b8 f% |9 i/ lCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
! O, J# W3 h% z8 H) j l, ~& N! [Indirect Measurement ......................... 209. O2 V% O; E4 j) M; i. Q
Endnotes .................................... 216
; |2 Y) ]8 h' k' x0 t 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2171 S1 g6 F/ J: |1 P' ?9 E
Generating the Transient ....................... 2175 @: `( b8 h8 \
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
- W1 K8 z2 a; l& [* JSlew Rate .............................. 219
$ e/ y) s- ]. V K1 Z$ M# Z9 ECurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
- h: w t% }$ {& a3 @6 Q# x& w Contents
# O- G2 B. r/ c3 a, {& h# e6 Vxi$ n: j+ W R* L; ?
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223# H v. }( P9 {
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
1 G) f3 V! o6 bNotes about Averaging .................. 224
( D$ D, } i; ?& ]1 f8 g# bSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
: O% B. h" i, \+ c* `$ J: k/ ]" H! mEndnotes .................................... 2322 a! J& M* K' X& _0 e6 f
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
9 ?# x. ~1 W( H0 l8 B! E. T! XSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234# t: B. V: |0 D2 Q- k: t& A" q
In or Out of System ..................... 2340 T5 m1 N8 W! s2 J. T
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
3 r0 q* R8 N; X) m P; {1 VTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234
/ z# U4 j) v+ g: n% l4 {# O# nConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235$ b8 c l2 k/ a7 U( {' ?) \
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235" d' ]" q% d* V! s
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236) a3 {5 @& V3 P& M* g
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
0 _; P; d( `+ i$ y, iChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237" W% J' g Z: Q1 ~( N
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252% m! o: b4 X6 ]6 i$ C; i( G
Endnotes .................................... 252
! C# c) U/ }9 \. [ P9 _ 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 2538 v8 Z' l/ d) m) P4 Q4 |9 u
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 2534 P" Z' E8 {8 O/ v& F9 n
Cascading Rise Times ................... 2562 {' p( A! j& M/ U: N4 n4 }% C
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
0 s! h% r9 `: u6 i4 l. G+ B8 ^! tLimiting ............................. 257! J' e9 v+ n( ^( X1 d! K
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261& m; r% b+ L6 w4 w# l
Interpolation ................................. 264
4 p; O8 o# V! M7 g% Y4 ]& zCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
( t; j' Q3 H3 }6 f0 U/ dEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265& q, w5 H& A; b1 ~
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 2674 E! ^% ]' `! g+ M
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269" J+ U6 S! l! X/ p6 a0 u0 t3 E& P
Probes ....................................... 269
s* X! a2 ], e8 C/ `Endnotes .................................... 273* `& n. X, d" Q
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275. z- {3 v# c$ P+ n3 T: `+ \
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
# V4 c' c, N. Q) z$ a+ L4 ?The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
: I' q7 x* { T- M/ K: WProbe and Orientation ......................... 278# X$ p1 A) F6 G) B d
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281, m0 M4 O7 _. x
Spectrum Gating .............................. 2817 m" z& B$ A; S3 J
Endnotes .................................... 295
& D3 V2 K& ]6 D& R- o+ ^5 o2 N# P 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297. s# b m, q! _$ @6 A+ ~3 t! [* V
Time Domain ................................. 297) W6 t2 E9 x# L' v( O0 x
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298+ ~9 ^- ^. ~7 f0 D# [* D7 n! `& F
Calibration ................................... 2990 j4 G) s5 @) n% a
Reference Plane ............................... 300 Y6 D) z3 w& a" Y" _7 s+ w5 _3 P
xii
( J) J+ x! v7 c/ h* w Contents! h8 {6 r' q8 {$ y' Y
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303) V& f2 d* m* ~$ J
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304# B( [3 u2 E& H$ X8 @; E+ }
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
" a9 [2 |. h: ?0 dS-Parameter Measurements .................... 3140 O j4 G2 X: B
Endnotes .................................... 316: _( i# g, Q' ^& n* A2 K, ?" q9 S4 @
Index ....................................... 319 |
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