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contents
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$ G z& W4 W/ Y% l1 Introduction ................................. 1+ ]1 ^3 V# K5 E( c
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1" N' C" @ s1 Q2 F! p/ }( A
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
6 a* C4 y3 f ]8 p; ^The General Format of This Book ............... 2
% } R2 o. N8 M8 }$ U. q f- t8 cWhy Measure .......................... 36 L; x! s4 W& D( u0 F, j
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 37 X$ J- l6 a" T' l: B8 x N4 s ^
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
5 B! i! w8 c2 Q+ ?9 O% l3 {) @9 JTroubleshooting ........................ 5
( s% Z7 o9 R3 l& KValidation or Verification ................. 78 `( }4 {! ~$ N' ^1 l4 U9 f* {
Terminology ........................... 7% R$ q* V' d F. m$ x! Y' a j+ ~. i' f
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 114 E- `; C/ v% o
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
! F5 u2 g! c4 e/ ?) C" ~Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11! S, Z' |2 I1 ]) k* }$ ?$ V! \
Validate the Test Setup and ) ] J9 X% ]4 S% D
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
7 |, O9 `" W" Y$ LMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 140 @+ L$ r( A6 F( h, T$ [1 ~
Noninvasive versus Invasive : J. X& Q! u; L5 m& E4 e
Measurement ........................ 14
, Y E: y- ]6 d; A' W1 f* z4 o DIn situ Measurement .................... 144 ? d9 g+ U% X7 V+ h
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
7 W6 l% S6 x0 B$ r5 n, J gDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 150 p, B, n5 L4 X* c+ A6 `( @
The Test Engineer and Contact
! @3 A7 \! [/ r+ C! I" B) ^- iInformation .......................... 15& p' {1 J& V+ m0 G8 Z
The Purpose of the Test .................. 16: b# h9 x! i# F& x
Simulated or Expected Results if 5 w* Z3 L% J7 F" S
Available ............................ 174 f) n2 \, E2 U4 x- a
The Date and Physical Location
0 h# J( |# P' O6 i& Y5 Y$ @of the Testing ........................ 18, K' _6 C' R* ~: N+ j0 p5 ]
Operational Test Environment
3 s& R5 e6 A& ]8 r* F0 |4 Rand Conditions ....................... 18
: |( d+ x0 p# JThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment + M5 ^% l5 D1 w+ S( w1 z
(Including Probes) and Verification That , U# m4 [/ v' N2 q. L+ y6 h
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
" b& K) D: o1 f: l: q1 x+ lSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 192 U1 k9 ]2 ]1 f) T
Measurement Annotations and
! t* d/ D* n) l" _6 V7 ]Comments .......................... 20
6 `! I/ \9 X3 K; C- V0 ?Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
$ }! j1 v+ q+ Z7 k
1 B) {, \# p; T# `% Y3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21" u8 y3 g1 `( Z4 a+ r* R
Sensitivity ................................... 21; p, X% @/ P& W0 H. i
Noise Floor .................................. 22
K6 }0 E2 N `$ g6 QDynamic Range .............................. 22
3 [& d! A) J) `" p/ b/ vNoise Density ................................ 275 _" C/ c% h% g* F1 _
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
% M4 E9 f5 n* RScaling ...................................... 33$ Q# z, ?# F9 {. m0 p
Attenuators .................................. 341 l& G' F9 l9 C
Preamplifiers ................................. 359 D5 D% f4 m4 n* J
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
0 Z/ F3 I2 _! b" R+ XMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
# j; E2 E- [+ ?$ L) tFrequency Domain ...................... 387 M" ~* Z) C/ g; s! j
Gain and Phase ......................... 38% D& t, `" h! y( S
S-Parameters ........................... 38 w9 l, a; a$ L8 e3 G7 W7 c
Impedance ............................. 393 q1 T) ]' u, {1 i
Time Domain ........................... 40
* y) |( m6 v, ^8 cSpectrum Domain ....................... 42 y/ o0 E4 M2 f
Comparing Domains .................... 44
& t) t& r) A% v4 N& Z! ] REndnotes .................................... 460 g( B/ {- `. {/ ]" B( W
4 Test Instruments ............................. 477 L- J% u/ R( |4 {2 w
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
! \8 Y$ x: f- W0 D' rNetwork Analyzers ......................... 47! Y. u7 P5 B4 Q1 T/ G
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49( h" h. U' W. C( X5 }# t
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 504 H) L& b9 v& L3 S. f, |! W
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
- `9 M @4 i# O; D0 D) x4 ^Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 516 E1 Y8 i$ j% ~8 w6 v/ V
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
# b/ `" L$ S: |0 u% X: NTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7 i$ J# d6 R4 [7 O% s' _% Q0 xTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
7 o0 c$ g0 E6 }) U* R. B) ?Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 555 q, r: I/ v5 M7 F7 I1 _
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56, A0 w% o8 w8 M0 b1 r- c
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
' Y. J: J& F+ i7 cTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
6 z$ i* P& N+ \. ]+ \OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59$ J' o: v+ R- V1 p, N
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
9 T$ y! \, S- ]+ i( TTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59. E9 p3 {- k( `3 e5 V( l
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60$ ~1 H4 G g l+ x
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61. l5 \2 \! c2 A$ }/ n
Signal Generators ............................. 62
/ _2 G5 E0 b/ F6 y! B5 WAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
$ ?, O- p, O& K' M; ?2 M3 cTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
8 O: Q! O$ P0 d3 T- m5 @5 \Picotest G5100A ........................ 63( Q3 o, a% {8 f4 R& z" Z. f$ s
+ Q4 _7 ^# i# J! I' h. y% S
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63% F) s7 a9 S1 p& j2 H
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
. ]4 K( k! D, V! C& EAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 664 I2 N0 ?& o+ p/ L* F
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69& s( h) _" f/ P9 P5 A. w
Voltage Probes ................................ 698 N: N/ a. J# E
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
! i6 ^5 h: E6 N& d" I( ZFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72
3 x% {- O6 v2 I) h/ x9 RConfirming Measurements ............... 74
1 p% D. f7 L) C5 B5 S# w- wSelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
2 a1 j0 v, L X# T+ ^0 z; DPassive Probes .......................... 772 G! L5 J6 _+ V3 Q& Q% m
Active Probes .......................... 79" j3 h+ f7 n! {5 t% v1 u# o. ]
Differential Probes ...................... 795 P" q# ~: R; I3 \( h" `. K- U4 d
Specialty Probes ........................ 800 T8 ^/ [& q3 f& y' n5 ^
Other Connections ...................... 91
0 ^# w5 q; d, ^Endnotes .................................... 91
9 g4 l+ c" u4 A" Y$ m 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93& t7 C6 X/ k! w0 b( D. a' f S
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 936 ?& i: \/ Y E/ c- q' f
Internal Noise .......................... 952 S* Q- \3 U7 J2 i/ X# Q
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95' r/ E) y( Q+ r) h" v
Output Impedance ...................... 99( F; a) I- I7 Y6 ~
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99) E% o, U0 p7 k9 U
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101 ^' E+ b9 V, H; B9 ~8 r& c/ ?
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101$ Z" x9 j% ^) C
Impact on Noise ........................ 102! f! |7 V- y6 E( E( O, Z0 D
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102' U3 m3 L2 W( T, ^
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
9 d8 f7 {9 N }+ ~% U: ^7 ZHow Poor Stability Propagates through
# ~! M6 x+ W" k2 |7 l5 \the System ................................. 103
' `* e& l2 G7 ~; zAdding the PDNs ....................... 1062 J/ T: u: _: l. o6 B. u% O) c
Endnotes .................................... 1081 w2 v; n9 h+ X- X
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
* m- ~. E. r5 dSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 1093 r# A% E; L( ]% P
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
5 s5 K2 T9 t, |) G }& v, k1 cTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123
- X; R2 R3 B# |' W& tCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139* X2 t7 Y d: z3 ?* M( I
Impedance Adapters .................... 1429 P4 s3 {" r9 B1 T: Z
Endnotes .................................... 1482 j* _4 E$ T7 d( s' Z H% @ m- k
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
d( w9 l1 o) }: {Stability and Why It Matters .................... 1516 Q) }" j+ G$ j) b1 H
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1510 P3 P8 R. B# L' D; f) Y6 Y
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
$ Y* o+ [2 @5 u5 Y/ j2 b' iMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
0 x4 `- s, J) H3 I. T/ }7 jBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154& }2 x# K5 y. a: A
x
% ]8 a+ ?/ \; T Contents
$ ^* j4 X, ?6 N9 i! `( {Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
7 S( p0 x0 k; r4 G+ fInjection Devices ........................ 161
! ~: `3 O" x5 j3 ~9 k3 sSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
" x; n' j: p3 U gClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 1697 [* T& n7 Z, S* M x# q
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
' o, W" x; V c- y7 q/ ^Forward Measurements .................. 171
. \+ g( |# n9 z9 b! f- ~* lMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171/ a6 _ l; p4 S3 V+ O; w( Y
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
3 O6 p; X; e% l) U1 i9 j* \Endnotes .................................... 1791 U' U7 f7 k2 M, w
. h/ J5 `0 l( g w. e L0 @. l6 Z% ~
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
! {+ u \* D; Y2 k" fMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
! X1 A% y% Z2 E; qIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182! _6 p9 y; E7 i0 ^
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 1823 Q' W. m0 B, D& a2 a
Modulating the Input ......................... 183' o# s ^, f3 ?' U! k9 \/ _
Line Injector ............................ 184; H, |5 k# Y7 y0 }. j
Current Injector ......................... 188
: R: M" i4 k. VDC Amplifier ........................... 189: y$ F! ], v. N* c4 d
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
; E- h# Y8 P5 P& q% q* z# W" VVNA .................................. 189+ y) H! A7 `& |: t0 o0 J
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 1899 T, @; x+ a" D$ O5 ~0 k
Oscilloscope ............................ 190+ }/ M$ o3 P) h* o( ~
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
. L; ^& y8 ]! x4 kEndnotes .................................... 200* h% `0 l0 ]9 O! J
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
1 L8 Q3 u" v- C; M, t$ t0 ?$ OReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 2012 C9 B8 s% B( L1 ~
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201$ h b1 q9 F0 ?+ L! ^5 ^
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201% C# i- b) X* {9 G2 W1 g, n
POL Regulators ......................... 203
/ |" }! s+ i7 rOperational Amplifiers .................. 204
1 I& J: d! P/ c* iModulating the Output Current ................ 204" C/ M9 r6 [! w8 a/ }! w
Current Injector ......................... 205% F. m0 B6 ?9 o! w3 h, k0 h& l
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205* h' X \+ X; F3 F& ~$ n9 Y# Q* w# w
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205
- B* f) U, U3 P8 m2 y$ e3 J6 lCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2051 Z# f4 K) \1 z
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
- Q6 ~9 I5 G A7 a0 b2 @Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209
: P4 t4 Z0 s$ @& Q- M$ `* BIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
5 k- Q' V w8 O: dEndnotes .................................... 2164 F! w" I7 |$ Y3 M& T m T" h
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2175 Z6 B( O0 A: R9 h$ v$ `
Generating the Transient ....................... 217& v0 {0 O' e* `6 `9 D% g
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
6 ]3 S9 L" X' l8 H" n" gSlew Rate .............................. 2191 x3 h. j% ?6 D9 j, w
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221$ M8 W' r* H0 g9 m5 |' }
Contents " x8 W6 H$ l& [; _) D9 j; d& Z
xi! x% t" a, ^' h/ Y
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 2238 @( d5 Y* \' @& a( t
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
, Y- |3 Q" G9 C+ iNotes about Averaging .................. 224. S+ T! K0 x. d/ ]" x9 u
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
- ?2 F* Q/ V5 \! N; W. zEndnotes .................................... 232
: C w% U! X3 m4 l2 X5 J) { 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
) n8 S6 I8 z+ ?6 b9 F: p2 uSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
2 {1 k5 l6 P, F" H# r- K0 UIn or Out of System ..................... 234
6 u9 c( v8 h" S1 o* zDirect or Indirect ....................... 2343 n1 h0 v" y+ u E: v
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
9 t3 Q. x+ ?" v6 O. {1 NConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235: y2 L) s2 \. F
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
( z8 ]: G' k& b/ Z$ g8 ?/ j/ _Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
% W( H1 H; m' o z$ }* FDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 2361 Y w" m6 ]: A+ k- n& W! b; S8 K+ y
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
" {9 U9 X+ w9 G. ?, r' n# UAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252; V/ u# G/ }% I' q# ~$ f
Endnotes .................................... 252: b; P* J1 g) u$ E& f) w7 _" `$ Q
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 2533 h. z1 ?! D! r, y+ ~; \! k2 c2 ~
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253! z4 ^6 J K/ t1 T, ?
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
f$ T& }) q/ b- d; |2 k( u, i# G) x% {Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
]6 D* {7 D- U; H9 H1 QLimiting ............................. 257/ O, p$ z. [( x7 x) B" q6 Z
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261& I7 ?4 X& x& y6 u4 s) c
Interpolation ................................. 264
4 w( f9 }& d9 ?5 [Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
) g6 V& `/ J# X6 N1 S+ {Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
d$ B7 @( t/ ?2 p1 tThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267; ]2 Z* D1 F/ m2 b) J% k5 C
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
/ ?7 }8 T- S0 |. k5 h0 N6 e# _Probes ....................................... 2692 S3 b0 f$ B9 Z3 C, [
Endnotes .................................... 273
}" [4 i: i, Q9 \* r* E p" j 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
/ o5 i' }$ D; C4 V, l, o( ~/ LThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 2750 V2 e, v8 s1 h6 k
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 2774 u! Z! t, f9 h5 T I+ M
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278) [8 `0 }' S+ A& y9 A0 @4 K- y
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281
8 Z( l* J& R' r3 X3 ]Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
# J* p4 _1 ~1 l2 zEndnotes .................................... 295
" J% r0 H3 m" P G/ }' b6 u 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
6 w& U( B0 M- r' `9 {8 CTime Domain ................................. 297! J# K! o1 n; x! x: S' X k6 g
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
0 W0 r D" S, `/ QCalibration ................................... 299
" \+ E" [- Q, }- wReference Plane ............................... 300
( e1 ]) W+ N, Z" f. T jxii
6 E- U" q3 x2 d3 ~# k% K" c- q1 n9 r @ Contents
* z5 s3 X- e; ]$ Z4 PSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303" Y9 g4 C- N+ [* `
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
! Q9 V+ c7 e+ W5 c ]Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 3075 N4 ]8 s5 P; E" c
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314* ^0 h0 `0 n! e4 `" Y% a
Endnotes .................................... 316/ c8 h j" r; x! c: S
Index ....................................... 319 |
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