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contents) |% {- g* E, E4 Q! s: h( m6 f
, n2 }7 U+ @0 S- x' P5 e9 d1 Introduction ................................. 1
, M3 J' H1 c" M3 M) SWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
+ y7 a' f+ `' H/ T% h* S R0 nWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2( a1 b1 i, q2 n w% L4 N
The General Format of This Book ............... 2% n" O% J/ b; c
Why Measure .......................... 3; M* ]% N X5 ~1 y
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3: ?* i2 ~7 [/ T- x+ L6 s' M! j
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5) l3 y$ [$ v: n& o6 e
Troubleshooting ........................ 5
' k4 j2 ?& Z0 @1 c' N/ VValidation or Verification ................. 7
' W4 H9 A, w" U7 A1 tTerminology ........................... 7
: w C% K) a( N+ t) N* s; _ 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 118 d" O9 ?1 Q2 {8 ~# Z
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
8 @( V" j- [( I% F3 a! |, nMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
$ r0 B* p% b7 p7 H5 p0 |3 ^7 cValidate the Test Setup and 7 |$ d+ ?% w9 X0 F2 m
Measurement Limits ........................ 120 _; P& B7 p" H
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
2 L% Z" f9 n6 ?. g/ Y/ zNoninvasive versus Invasive 9 S: f! n" R1 _ d% F1 r; a
Measurement ........................ 14
2 o* ?9 w- T6 W. D) z6 D8 YIn situ Measurement .................... 14% \. f3 }/ Z h3 V8 h/ G
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
$ m5 J9 }0 M! l& Y5 x. nDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 154 X' m }3 a3 O$ j v% m
The Test Engineer and Contact , @9 S0 } Z/ _7 K
Information .......................... 15# l$ ^# \2 s2 o K/ r4 _
The Purpose of the Test .................. 16
* ]7 ~, v1 A- o, o8 ^3 I; SSimulated or Expected Results if
. k5 J/ j, c' Y2 N2 lAvailable ............................ 17
. H9 M& K) t7 J: B) @The Date and Physical Location
4 |4 v; p2 H# o* |of the Testing ........................ 18
0 S0 C2 g: S1 q. j6 P* i# T8 j% E) a# T$ sOperational Test Environment 3 x" \+ D% y5 [
and Conditions ....................... 188 |7 D# K# @% u+ b& Y. \
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment Q: D9 ]/ x8 w/ k/ y% n) o5 z6 J
(Including Probes) and Verification That ; K5 {0 v' U* o0 Y% `
They Are Calibrated .................. 18$ i/ n" Z( i* _/ i y
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
% e7 k% H0 Q) F/ I* S4 `Measurement Annotations and
# D- t- O! {3 s" q" o# C* ]5 EComments .......................... 20
9 G$ b( h# U0 v. g7 H8 ]4 FAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20
! x# U. U7 P# \: U3 {5 C3 s. c; U! c7 S1 Y
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
$ q" J0 Y- y" y2 x8 n7 rSensitivity ................................... 21
% R8 D/ o/ J+ A- v6 h* S |, CNoise Floor .................................. 220 ^7 X3 `/ h" |5 O! d! Z
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
4 q3 c! V6 r S, G& PNoise Density ................................ 27
6 b8 @" N, m+ L" U1 n XSignal Averaging ............................. 31
K' K. P1 E4 f7 ]% U& IScaling ...................................... 33
; l5 W1 ^1 ^2 H# g, yAttenuators .................................. 34
$ ?( U x) @" HPreamplifiers ................................. 35" s2 ~& c+ l$ F% ^7 [- `' M9 p
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36- W" x7 k ^9 c v
Measurement Domains ........................ 387 h3 T1 @1 J6 A) F8 B: e0 l
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
( k7 E ?$ p! o$ F- E- LGain and Phase ......................... 384 J4 K& K$ I1 ^/ m
S-Parameters ........................... 381 `) b- u2 b; R6 d+ a2 H6 {9 r% w
Impedance ............................. 39
" S& K4 \$ a8 y) P" t5 @7 x# ]* T9 bTime Domain ........................... 405 ?% G5 @6 \4 C6 [
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42% K; X- c0 K/ x. j
Comparing Domains .................... 44
7 k0 j& j+ E6 c) b VEndnotes .................................... 462 a w/ C; u# h& @
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
* X% y* z. ~1 h% dFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector - K6 R' D& g8 b, y2 w$ t
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
: @& E- P/ X5 N" L: a5 S; UOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49( n/ c2 [+ z3 {; E
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
' y2 }- h+ x+ o; ~9 D0 i' ]Oscilloscopes ................................. 50! j3 G- P( ?. y
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51- }, i+ q/ f9 F7 a/ N: g6 V; O z
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52$ |: q. v% I1 X: g& n$ j, P
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 V2 Y/ f* Z/ s' ~4 j
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54$ A& N0 v, h) G8 {+ y; w4 L3 q9 z1 O. V
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55. T) g4 H" d/ {7 F8 S
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
# X6 x, A0 D+ z7 X5 N, r2 UTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56& D7 Z7 M( P- D* ]* Z* d) b
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 582 {: z/ Q) P6 N+ g2 A
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
# n) W' ^/ h: a. ]7 C- ?Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
x8 Z% {6 X5 j/ U3 uTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59+ |$ J4 i. h" }; v( y
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 608 i1 ~9 C' T# N4 a5 _
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61. E3 M0 M9 w- B& \, |7 P
Signal Generators ............................. 62' r0 v! D! }' G
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
/ Z$ @- Y# B# |0 B$ e' RTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 634 z4 n3 p4 p. D
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63
6 Z3 _7 R9 q3 ?6 d; _+ @ c0 T3 G, h/ Y$ c
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 639 u1 C7 F5 ~ l8 ]% I+ n
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65! n' q1 o+ E! ~/ B8 n5 S1 ]- \
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
# g5 j$ `; n- o, Y$ u) F: V 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
' l) r. i* a6 Y) J: HVoltage Probes ................................ 69. }9 l |- v, r+ Y1 x8 _
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70' o7 H$ d5 I. b: ?# m3 w
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 725 v, i% g, s) ^+ }6 ^1 e+ F
Confirming Measurements ............... 74
" Z) }& F! n& o6 ISelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
! Y, o8 j/ Q& f! d7 Y+ H) l |- [0 XPassive Probes .......................... 77
K- C/ g- W2 J( I, R4 Z- RActive Probes .......................... 79
3 C# l0 l X* P1 }Differential Probes ...................... 79
) @0 Y( I+ X$ WSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
( R& |7 k$ B1 A! V3 a0 \- l1 zOther Connections ...................... 91
" j; k- J$ a9 R5 r* ~" ? v$ [Endnotes .................................... 91
* `. b9 ]- E- P$ b+ w 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93; G+ b1 v7 G. l$ }7 k& d+ I0 L& f& [
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
6 V8 E7 X) @1 ^; t {Internal Noise .......................... 95& r) c- _7 \0 O2 u
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95, }- I7 L# f" U+ G/ }) `9 Z5 U
Output Impedance ...................... 99( @. @4 l# O- A/ T
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99! @1 P3 \ N* V1 b# r. Q; D7 X2 K
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
; v2 }& h6 V$ f5 JImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101
~+ ]* m- d0 ^6 `9 D- e! y- ~( y5 ^Impact on Noise ........................ 102$ r' Y4 D2 C2 A' c$ P4 f1 `: g1 }
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
8 D6 Y- D, l. A: z- X( k, aImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 1033 W" V' ?* k* ^( p( b
How Poor Stability Propagates through
! q! A, c: F3 a- K N) k) n5 sthe System ................................. 103
4 i m/ o' A% eAdding the PDNs ....................... 106+ c$ @, s% ^* W! e( L' G
Endnotes .................................... 108) B) t+ F* [. ^. u, b
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
2 a& C4 {. K- _& H! c9 z8 U5 t" fSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109/ T9 d& ] ]/ s" ]6 W% I
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
# M; O' w) C7 _+ h8 T2 zTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123
- G1 A$ [$ `1 H. U5 ]Current Injection Measurements .......... 139! @7 l5 y+ l2 Y0 O6 m. ~ u
Impedance Adapters .................... 1424 O3 t) A1 H1 I7 S7 Q' G0 Q; `% M/ q
Endnotes .................................... 148
. V' a" {: e4 I8 B O) d1 i I* |" w 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
8 ` V# I- r+ a$ R/ AStability and Why It Matters .................... 151# S- Y- [) P s- K9 y
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1518 _* u- u# S$ \7 Y
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
2 o7 R! o3 |& o2 e7 VMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
) K6 W& B. u( N& e+ JBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
& e" Y# r# L; q: g6 A$ v2 ux) L( y [5 W$ o, c; U$ ]7 ?
Contents y. E3 Q& f% R) Z9 [
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
2 U+ K9 M( c$ k2 z% g) N* |Injection Devices ........................ 161
4 e# R' u) v. r/ a7 d: zSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
, a1 a: G4 W* nClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
3 Z: E M& x. o( Y( u' L2 P+ _' [' F; qON and OFF Measurements .............. 170% V+ y' L5 I/ f6 Y8 V6 m' J
Forward Measurements .................. 171
$ P0 h9 f4 O8 N% Y/ F. X% pMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171% `. T3 u n2 P8 \2 V& c. a
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
0 d4 j( S& M1 cEndnotes .................................... 1796 l+ A: l! Q$ g. g. S2 W7 k2 _ b
8 x# I. D- U) n9 l; S, ~$ C
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
# l8 a, D5 I& {7 }- f6 R( j" |Measurement Methods ........................ 1829 D- u! _4 _4 d6 Y7 M/ e. n6 N
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 1823 ]' B, S$ |4 ?$ q
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182$ k; a$ m! h) Y5 Y9 Z& n- K5 k
Modulating the Input ......................... 183+ v$ e% {0 P% A8 j) }8 d9 ~/ H( @5 _
Line Injector ............................ 184
; U% Q4 `) C' F" ~, M1 S7 q5 O vCurrent Injector ......................... 1883 A0 {: K! O1 M6 U- `4 x. L
DC Amplifier ........................... 189
, |8 B& K0 r' N" wChoosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
( ]/ K/ I e) M3 a4 qVNA .................................. 189/ ^# s, A8 K+ U Z
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 1893 ]( [. Y/ K! S3 I' ^+ u9 \* D
Oscilloscope ............................ 190
3 X4 i4 y6 O$ ?Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
u" h2 z9 R% R. c! }Endnotes .................................... 200$ q6 I4 e9 I0 x, h+ H$ f5 o
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 2014 p3 i6 m* N; d' ~) W, Q! O5 H/ M7 H
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 2018 @$ a0 [$ y1 E1 F* G& X# f
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201- q, t. x- w& R8 A) j) M
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
1 ?+ E& g. L" r* T5 DPOL Regulators ......................... 203
0 X! X! N, G1 ]/ d1 nOperational Amplifiers .................. 204& `3 S; b0 V9 J; d
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204) o5 J, b& Z9 ^" e' K
Current Injector ......................... 205
: v w* O: T' b) A; m# EDC Bias Injector ........................ 205! o3 _9 M3 j# ^, i4 k4 J: L1 |2 e
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205
* K9 h# N0 l+ D o: OCalibrating the Measurement ............. 205' {# `% F3 G5 ?- Y6 p! [
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
8 e4 h. P/ M! ~( O# ZCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
) R7 }$ k% N8 M% N4 |; n3 _Indirect Measurement ......................... 209& w6 h. {) Z0 [7 R0 P
Endnotes .................................... 216# x% w! g8 _! u" C0 F
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
3 g) u) b3 d3 ]9 `Generating the Transient ....................... 217
1 a/ |+ R; H- R6 l2 x7 \Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217$ F# O: }4 x+ t2 Y4 V1 O' y
Slew Rate .............................. 219' H3 j/ g) Y) i4 P7 y
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 2214 K7 T/ F) r7 ]" K* W6 R: Z
Contents
. X+ N4 H; p" Y+ E, hxi' p9 ^8 K, t6 f0 Y. X
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
) f" z" L& b- K2 VLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223; V1 c: K: K3 J: M& r
Notes about Averaging .................. 224& f" h' V# h! R& @. B6 W; X2 y
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226$ m6 z/ H1 D6 p; T2 n, a3 s7 l& C
Endnotes .................................... 232$ X) h3 G% G5 H; N
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 2331 d9 z, U, l/ Y, E! N4 r
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234" ^2 [- f# G# ]8 h2 u
In or Out of System ..................... 2343 E, S7 X) M Y2 G: j
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234) l$ P6 h9 z8 b+ f: S
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234* a- n% a' e& u$ q+ y8 Y7 G: `
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 2351 ]* C R$ }9 }4 ?
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
9 N3 W, X% t$ J& l) x, {Active Scope Probes ..................... 236/ E' p) }3 x) \+ U" \0 t0 N
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
. C4 L) B% t, e6 {Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5 c7 L! S/ b, I- ]+ AAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252" V0 j1 H( i% U; ^1 {2 @4 c! [
Endnotes .................................... 2522 d7 W8 m$ i3 [. Y) T- ~8 _6 Q! B$ h$ E
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
a% G8 T% h1 e! sRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
& k2 Q6 l' Y( c; lCascading Rise Times ................... 256+ j! i' t0 j3 c. V: P; C
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth 8 C& M1 m" F4 m, c8 O( U
Limiting ............................. 2576 J: B$ ]) r6 U. A8 Z
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261! J \# k% V+ h* |: [7 T
Interpolation ................................. 264
6 u4 g c5 d Q0 VCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2654 E) D' x. [* F
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
0 r. @& O) U" F8 ~( lThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267; J# k. h# f! w; r" E, Y; k
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269. r. V& D/ j, _" a! X
Probes ....................................... 269
: ]2 ~% X x+ b# ^# g# ^2 }, rEndnotes .................................... 273
5 i# H# I$ u$ B; @ 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 2757 \3 H. s7 m7 @6 a& a3 X
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
" Z4 X6 Z6 ]5 I# L/ v! gThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
+ X t$ m+ H6 \( I* qProbe and Orientation ......................... 278: E( ]8 H% R4 `" b; P/ M5 v, E
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281- R& J8 T7 n$ O6 m2 Q! r1 G; ]3 f
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
( e4 d% P+ S1 U3 S/ L) ^+ [Endnotes .................................... 295
9 w/ C' A0 f# q* d! m 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297" H! h1 P' Y3 s/ H. W& Z
Time Domain ................................. 2978 g5 T) Z. i* R' U- {8 \) q
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
, x7 H- D) T1 hCalibration ................................... 299% E$ ?5 M% g7 j O J5 R1 P' u
Reference Plane ............................... 3004 T5 J8 T2 h% F0 O$ v' ?& C& ]
xii& q% u7 \- D* p! t; x- Y/ _
Contents8 \/ o' S4 b' @& c3 Z& p; {& [
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303; {* E0 r* `+ Q7 x
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3047 ]2 ~% W* U. V; Q6 D& ], l
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307( v6 K, y2 c' D. Y2 {/ y
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314' c; L: v/ \+ H& |2 Q) n+ U! L0 k
Endnotes .................................... 3162 f6 Q8 D+ D' \, N
Index ....................................... 319 |
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