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0 V& B! y4 S* I- A) a' V! z7 `3 }1 f/ |2 M+ ~: A7 b) j% x! k/ q7 s
1 Introduction ................................. 1* X! B9 w3 y( Y) ~6 }" k# s0 f
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
9 P7 p0 X9 y8 u; eWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2# `1 u5 b% R2 d+ C. d
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
0 Y- e$ T; W* V' sWhy Measure .......................... 3* w0 H7 w# y" A6 f
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
1 U- _' W: U5 W1 IDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
|# q0 ]$ u6 X7 a+ x8 Z, [8 xTroubleshooting ........................ 5
- e, g& R. s" o4 l$ o6 n* ^# |Validation or Verification ................. 74 i) v$ V. [ o- ~4 N% C5 h0 S% q
Terminology ........................... 7
# T `6 g I- Z 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 115 s0 `$ @8 c. H2 v o+ l% N
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
* P W5 g( T* Q, v8 a3 ?Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 111 Q7 S' z4 b4 C' q
Validate the Test Setup and
* I8 ]% Q2 b1 N" w. iMeasurement Limits ........................ 12* X; c2 v6 U8 g& @
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
5 x6 {/ z2 f# t z1 ?" O. cNoninvasive versus Invasive
/ \+ j" Y. ` @8 jMeasurement ........................ 14
2 c& F/ d, Q6 o4 e `) BIn situ Measurement .................... 14# [# N4 r+ {! T
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
& B% N4 R/ P# y8 T1 \Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
& D, E2 r& R- H. e+ ^9 w9 A; C. K' TThe Test Engineer and Contact * F& t- u" Y; i
Information .......................... 15
' _% A6 E$ c3 w1 C- ^; v- n" vThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
( O7 U2 p' z4 A' Y0 H- t" BSimulated or Expected Results if " k6 T1 ?+ A8 X- I3 I
Available ............................ 17
! N! l: @. R M7 lThe Date and Physical Location
8 G/ ~) o a+ ~of the Testing ........................ 18
, w' }- S+ V% A' X/ yOperational Test Environment
5 ]0 g! A" W. M/ Zand Conditions ....................... 18
: w" q% C R; F4 ^The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
! Z! o2 O% \: G5 \3 |( i(Including Probes) and Verification That # y" I. L; c! S* k/ v
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
. }+ Z1 E% w, T C) M+ XSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
& L$ Z& R" ?# e) H( hMeasurement Annotations and
% I- i% R) n1 s% V, MComments .......................... 205 @5 O1 e( A5 \2 S/ t) U
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
/ i" x% b- c9 X; h) U1 P
! {2 i& `8 R- z$ S2 f4 r3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21- r: s/ w& T) M: I0 Z* {
Sensitivity ................................... 21
3 i4 h* Q) i. G9 f1 m+ L1 YNoise Floor .................................. 22
6 O9 g0 F! ]$ b, k( EDynamic Range .............................. 22* O1 u4 C0 C' a
Noise Density ................................ 27! x# v4 H6 ^ |/ u8 A- Q, z
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
; f! R" e4 U0 m& x! ?$ P& j! V: `Scaling ...................................... 33
! o+ w6 p* J+ _7 _, |+ kAttenuators .................................. 34+ E8 _/ R9 I+ |1 A( S
Preamplifiers ................................. 353 A! U, k/ h( }9 {, b
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
3 y9 k/ e' A! m3 m* q8 S3 pMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
, b' O3 ~; m. `( fFrequency Domain ...................... 38
# A8 n+ `+ n: Z9 W' E4 k BGain and Phase ......................... 38
; K7 K A6 _( d4 [1 qS-Parameters ........................... 38
; R% g3 A: _ w7 QImpedance ............................. 390 F! X( O* |. }" V/ h* O
Time Domain ........................... 40
7 V. N7 z/ q7 W% HSpectrum Domain ....................... 42
- ^% W: _/ {, h9 {0 B4 Y& l6 }1 N. dComparing Domains .................... 44
* b3 ]/ i+ B1 M9 eEndnotes .................................... 46
; l. T7 @0 |! }0 C8 _# E+ d 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
- @' k' H" c! ~7 hFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector
# i6 t, q" `( X, zNetwork Analyzers ......................... 475 r+ z. l2 u5 T2 t5 p! S" H
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49) L, ^. o V: k+ H( N0 I
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
( W# U! E$ V' i% L; g( e0 S' d" p$ n* ROscilloscopes ................................. 50& C( X* T2 J& |' e z
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51: Y/ C' s+ M7 l" y: m" N3 T
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 521 g: `3 Y2 A' D$ H3 t' z9 Y1 Z
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
$ _. {8 i) r7 D) U9 k# k6 a' CTektronix DPO72004B ................... 549 }1 W* r& a5 W' S- S+ E
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55$ U/ M' z1 r% J
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56& G& s. ^0 p$ |# P, B( \& x" x
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
, c" ~3 z: `6 W2 Q7 u1 yTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58' v) m" v+ @3 [( F
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
! r- W4 h# N r( t5 {- n3 XSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
& b. A2 v0 U/ U' Y; j7 v: T! I" RTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59" y9 |1 f. Q0 ^4 ?5 ~- p
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60# D# l& W8 ~1 c+ {# J
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61# l+ T& Z' [/ b/ v' z) K! H
Signal Generators ............................. 62
. Q. ~' x8 U5 k- l% h! f1 U2 }Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 627 U: l V* t7 q7 T" Q
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
. O8 k+ U3 H/ I% M3 PPicotest G5100A ........................ 63
) z' ]4 n6 B/ y* o: G6 M/ K
# T3 c5 D& M/ i4 Z: I# U. a- b& sTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
4 @$ u, H' p# \# r6 @$ f: \ T/ P, yTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 658 k2 A: P1 P+ j/ [9 J% X3 Z0 o
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66, s2 v0 D0 {6 C. A
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 696 j) k7 c1 t; M Q8 I
Voltage Probes ................................ 69+ t, }9 X" @/ c
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70' C" w- r( n' \, g/ H8 ~% k
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 722 X( P: U, @' ~( U
Confirming Measurements ............... 74
* w& t2 U& r3 fSelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75" A9 i7 j% Z& G2 U/ M
Passive Probes .......................... 77/ A) {. O4 w$ P0 W
Active Probes .......................... 79
# ]1 D8 Q% g6 ?) Q, BDifferential Probes ...................... 79# ?# X4 n$ A$ \3 ]9 s; b4 M
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
, U* B4 z0 P% a% f2 XOther Connections ...................... 917 p9 ]3 q2 @( u* F+ v5 X
Endnotes .................................... 91
: r4 `8 q, _1 b7 C( ` 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
7 E# D \) g6 e$ @Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93: Q. m2 o; m" |# D# z2 L- k
Internal Noise .......................... 95
2 E& Q# m0 r0 t+ b3 q fPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95. [; ^4 j! P/ E2 G' u% G$ \% c# ?
Output Impedance ...................... 993 U$ V) H& G5 u/ D. n q* ~* q# y
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 992 {: u3 d0 U* Z1 B9 h7 @& D
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
* g& |7 x+ y' P4 h' c2 MImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101- b8 M4 e/ Q5 M8 X
Impact on Noise ........................ 1024 ^) ~* {7 T/ p: `' H2 V+ V
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102$ W4 b6 b. x7 x& ~
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 1033 B% L$ A4 K5 b* p) \- F
How Poor Stability Propagates through
4 A2 l/ W/ m Z4 }" G4 Athe System ................................. 103' B, ^- O: {2 H# q2 u
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106& Z+ U7 V) c% o3 h
Endnotes .................................... 108% J n% v& T J! _$ m
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1093 e6 k4 d$ S9 e' h2 `: W
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
7 E1 A6 `' l2 r3 @2 e! Z1 `Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
\. t1 z5 |$ D H3 x4 _Two-Port Measurements ................. 1237 D6 ?6 k7 G9 Z( X' I9 x
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139
9 o6 y5 w. B0 J V- l8 PImpedance Adapters .................... 142
, K, E; P# ?3 z/ [! Q& V( aEndnotes .................................... 1483 G5 Z. }7 m s2 E5 F
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 1514 _ C4 _5 i$ r- X4 T4 g
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 1513 s, M1 t5 ~* H3 `0 J
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
7 Q/ ~. y4 C2 f9 RGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
' Z/ R" S6 X; H* O# t8 @- s* oMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
( {/ V; h* U( ~3 DBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 1546 e7 Y- w" a7 N+ i/ ?; J
x
/ A/ c* Z0 I, o4 ?* z/ L& @ Contents
$ U' h, P# r3 j& V2 Y( v/ a4 Z5 WOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 1591 r5 C6 a" Y/ c; I, ^+ T+ }$ U
Injection Devices ........................ 161
! y0 Z4 Y0 k ^Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
- L. e, w6 ~. g3 m* mClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169( W) t3 z& ~+ a) H# d j
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170, s: X2 @+ e/ S- @8 v8 ?9 \
Forward Measurements .................. 171# J1 V* |( S' w6 k$ r1 }5 t
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171 s$ E1 A$ B5 @4 s. N$ ?3 f4 Z
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
" |+ H! { x g9 e; Z) W; B) ?Endnotes .................................... 1797 S* r4 [$ }! q- o
. ?. r) [: P s! E C) \
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
& E2 k! s# W( ?. J; I, HMeasurement Methods ........................ 182. q; I3 L, U, E, C: V9 e6 o2 l
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
; g6 w/ i2 Y7 w9 b t# _Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 1823 T" P4 W: \7 u
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
7 n1 O5 R7 h+ d/ {Line Injector ............................ 184$ {& c7 U1 U2 }; o7 k: k% a
Current Injector ......................... 188
8 X$ Z& B. }5 ?, g2 ^DC Amplifier ........................... 189' H# v" N: k1 h( O
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
% E: n5 n" A/ k, w* i7 gVNA .................................. 189
5 D" w% E0 V8 D" v5 c: PSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189" b% x7 u( ]( ` a- V' S. a( f
Oscilloscope ............................ 190
4 I6 n3 o- D! X: cProbes and Sensitivity ................... 1900 T8 ]8 Q9 d' C# q
Endnotes .................................... 200
5 t7 C% h6 E% `- b Z' @- H 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
; S5 E" w6 e5 IReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 2015 e2 R4 s" K7 d# o3 x( a
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201* S2 s% T4 }( p( I' a- p0 w: C
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201$ M7 V6 Y1 H8 D) S5 M# Q, w
POL Regulators ......................... 203
4 k2 L/ X% N# h9 q4 a7 AOperational Amplifiers .................. 204
% Z6 f! v ?8 v& FModulating the Output Current ................ 204
' k7 K) K _. z- A; z3 R, nCurrent Injector ......................... 205- ^) G8 ?8 [/ }1 n R4 Z
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205
1 \# j3 L$ h5 a9 P& uMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
- k, S- v( Q1 Z! |$ z; wCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2059 F/ P+ b0 x3 G1 z. q p( Z
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
+ M: [( s1 ^& g0 V; [Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209; d% ~, r5 E2 s6 ]8 v+ ~; t
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209# D2 @6 D1 Z/ M9 o7 y2 [9 D
Endnotes .................................... 216/ t9 l0 j3 x) u; b/ f
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
# y7 B# Q% R. L1 h( cGenerating the Transient ....................... 217
; K4 \/ s2 q% _7 }9 X* A. V! N) LCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
+ k9 s# x6 E% |6 c+ ySlew Rate .............................. 219, \6 g- r, D4 m8 H5 k0 `
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
8 c- k3 z6 Q, W4 a Contents
) ~6 V9 f" M1 I7 Zxi
: ^1 |3 X) K8 nMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
7 u( R3 j$ b+ \0 h" H8 b# m8 Z5 J, OLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
0 i# j: {; ~5 @' qNotes about Averaging .................. 2245 X) @) B: b9 t& H* q: T
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
1 t5 d, H; ~. c: t( FEndnotes .................................... 232
m8 D: I! l+ _- f9 z 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
5 {$ ~! ~# H7 Q" ^, ESelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
9 ^+ x/ o' Y {; ^In or Out of System ..................... 234
/ G8 y$ x+ [8 Y" `. f4 _Direct or Indirect ....................... 2349 Y7 a- v4 _8 Q& \, @
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
0 d6 Y% i- \; p' s# {% i: U+ F( H& xConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235
2 j" O+ g" i8 C8 S, x$ FPassive Scope Probes .................... 235
* U' x+ M; J( I& UActive Scope Probes ..................... 236
1 T& X4 |9 w5 M: wDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236' ]$ p% {( n! ~5 m
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237' D% `: H; Y1 a7 [! A0 M/ L
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 2523 R& _' m4 i# G
Endnotes .................................... 252
t; W1 s! A/ p, I 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
4 y8 i8 K) _$ n/ TRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
$ A' p4 [: G! {( \Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
! S* a* V- v8 V9 QImpact of Filters and Bandwidth g: e: g8 K# d
Limiting ............................. 257
; P& Y ]0 w! L& t6 i: e9 X, _Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 2610 D9 {" v7 {' w0 Z
Interpolation ................................. 2643 ]6 L4 z/ S# q' v# z
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2650 [4 Y: {( R. U' v% [1 N" l. k; k
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265( E& k. h" L, A, b
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267" P0 G: j; O4 H- p4 U1 N
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 2698 P, J* M- \8 Q) F% w% q
Probes ....................................... 2696 }6 H3 n+ t5 j- y
Endnotes .................................... 273
6 a5 b7 }, E1 U- K y& h* ` 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
% y, l& X' C6 Y$ O% t9 j, v8 ]The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
! H. h7 V. n; F( ]The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277$ h; g3 O) r# u9 q5 g
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
8 }+ S+ R8 x( v1 i+ @ RThe Measurement Instrument .................. 2815 S3 h3 W( S) v7 ]' `
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
/ z, A8 Z6 F) W" t7 P4 S# g" nEndnotes .................................... 295' q# }+ D8 g# ~, h. \
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
- H6 t* O7 L4 s9 E0 tTime Domain ................................. 2971 M# e6 }' a. u0 Y+ \8 H
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
# E7 Q K) n: O3 ECalibration ................................... 299
/ v" J3 f2 j4 }Reference Plane ............................... 300
! a, g- ]+ j& @- `$ b# U! gxii
* }" g) {: U4 i, ^ Contents
" \# Q3 ]7 u* W) w& }( XSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303% E- n1 P6 b* X }8 K
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
7 [6 Q2 i9 o, V' r$ A5 DEstimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
7 E) T3 E4 s, o) m- OS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
& U- N5 H }6 J U: {0 M- IEndnotes .................................... 3166 h# Y: A5 V( e
Index ....................................... 319 |
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