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contents7 b6 A) w- M% m9 U9 ~, [- W( Q
( ]+ [/ k+ q1 C0 t5 F& A; l: z8 L. L1 Introduction ................................. 12 j2 D* _; T6 ~5 x& r/ r
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 15 `. v* N \5 R. R2 ]- |
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2+ T! Z% y" a, C9 b8 I
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
) g5 x5 o w$ ~8 ^4 gWhy Measure .......................... 32 j) ~, H# H% b
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3! A: Y H5 ~7 z
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
6 @8 Z' Y7 B- \4 NTroubleshooting ........................ 5
3 q" d5 f1 p) ~2 `# c' `; y( w7 jValidation or Verification ................. 7
- ~8 C3 A2 R t6 QTerminology ........................... 7
, Q8 z; K! [" f 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11, j1 v n d; _# V, ^
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
' W: j) ^9 Q9 eMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
( b+ A( M* `# ^1 t% x/ K( B# @; G5 pValidate the Test Setup and
% m8 L+ s# q# Y$ }( ^+ |" _8 PMeasurement Limits ........................ 124 x; w. j" d, O' {8 f3 r: u
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14- T! c; A$ @$ H( {
Noninvasive versus Invasive - p# n2 J A$ Z6 ^( [- S- X
Measurement ........................ 144 h1 s/ U. d4 x6 E# r
In situ Measurement .................... 14
@# l5 l9 ~: ?' ~$ ]) _Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14$ h# j) J, m* S) a! [7 u# c
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
W" d0 n( ?% R7 F1 d6 nThe Test Engineer and Contact : w* J2 P6 Q0 C! [% e& I- r3 L
Information .......................... 15" J6 ~' Z; `0 N3 v+ _
The Purpose of the Test .................. 161 T1 S+ Y1 s+ W T9 M
Simulated or Expected Results if # X% d% Q$ s/ F. q+ v* j) c5 b
Available ............................ 17
" O, S$ Z9 r" X. O; J$ K* m) y, cThe Date and Physical Location - h1 j: C' K# r( ~
of the Testing ........................ 18# M1 ^( n5 H( @! R- U2 O2 h
Operational Test Environment
* l3 `! E3 v8 q7 Y' K* ~and Conditions ....................... 18
5 h9 h( [+ z- d5 SThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
% t* R9 [+ b7 Y2 w7 P b(Including Probes) and Verification That
( s, h( k, y. }2 EThey Are Calibrated .................. 18
) Q6 P I* q( P- s- zSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
0 B7 t) U! G. N( S- e2 m4 f0 j% X4 u& dMeasurement Annotations and
1 j6 ?( d8 r% u$ hComments .......................... 20
* [* a) U9 Q. [# S* s9 c# DAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20
* @- a/ _, {8 ]
3 ~0 p8 X& Q7 K) `3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 211 J( |( w$ y2 \3 b3 p
Sensitivity ................................... 219 Y" y) b9 ?2 H k3 ~
Noise Floor .................................. 225 o ^& Y/ o2 \/ g9 l* I, @7 j
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
' k0 i% A+ j" R- O1 iNoise Density ................................ 27
( U. E- G- _6 {- d S3 {/ pSignal Averaging ............................. 31. q9 j/ V% l/ u
Scaling ...................................... 33+ m8 t8 L9 y- o! U4 A
Attenuators .................................. 34
9 z* `8 ^& l( I2 ?Preamplifiers ................................. 35
# Q( ~1 s8 w" ?" o) ?Linear versus Log Display ............... 36 ?. n$ v* u0 j) k
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
7 T/ L, I! \7 v9 M! y+ \Frequency Domain ...................... 383 X8 \( x& {+ _5 X3 q6 [! q
Gain and Phase ......................... 38
% @0 \4 G3 p1 A! D( m3 AS-Parameters ........................... 38
9 {. ^% { u- vImpedance ............................. 39: X- i* Q4 S" ]) L9 R0 z* u
Time Domain ........................... 40& k5 O" N9 j1 F* \
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42# A1 v/ G0 o# w1 V- [
Comparing Domains .................... 44
- q" L) b9 J. sEndnotes .................................... 460 v6 u( m8 D" t( R) a; @
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
6 t X1 ]9 t# f! ^% cFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector % l) j! V% t$ g3 |9 N
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
, x0 X* m M* MOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49. f5 {: N$ Q$ n
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50, H4 V3 L/ b7 t% D2 B8 |9 [7 ?: b
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
4 l* n1 b8 S9 p' F! GTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 511 s3 [" X" o, o0 N, R4 \
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52. m4 W) E# H8 f& p. q6 w6 }
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53: p% ?3 R x4 \+ e8 ~% m6 a
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
; K% K' K1 t2 ETeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55; _- ]+ c6 Q- s' u
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
' f/ U+ j7 O g& tTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56$ G' Y# e4 v8 j3 t3 A6 N; b- d. t
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58: S; J% u' ?& x! P" ~' \; E4 w
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
. q7 y9 N- h& l7 M0 gSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
8 {3 d. C& Y t1 k6 Y. @( \5 F# kTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
% [7 X% D* O. VAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
# [# K7 I- \( k) }0 ]- NAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
; X* C ^5 L" W9 P; `Signal Generators ............................. 62
; f' N* h$ d: M, d) f% N3 uAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
9 H K" T* M2 e3 u) c# ^2 QTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63 z7 g) |+ M( a( L" q0 p
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63, u8 Y- `! X2 w( |3 y
v( v, ?& D" s# }# R6 R, T
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63! M8 q4 ~ r4 N9 y" H* `! U) o
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 656 Q; U" m- U% k. P7 i ~
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
' Z5 M7 e8 e; Z. O" G& I. d5 r 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
$ c; X9 p! G3 m$ @$ sVoltage Probes ................................ 69" C# K P7 j' R U7 d7 e
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
S1 l0 F4 w* MFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72
# G h. z4 J4 k+ G2 a' @Confirming Measurements ............... 74% c+ h! p- M3 e; `1 M/ Q# A
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75" [0 T/ ?2 ?6 ]9 l7 F* a
Passive Probes .......................... 77( g- x5 @" g% j9 K/ ]) T; V; k% ^
Active Probes .......................... 79* ^* S# m5 p+ ~- n- a- Q: Y3 n
Differential Probes ...................... 79
! ~4 } M3 K A% Z5 \Specialty Probes ........................ 80
- K) i8 J' g) e# h7 jOther Connections ...................... 91: J5 Q; E5 s! q7 s" B, q
Endnotes .................................... 91# z! ]6 n; E3 v
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93. G! N+ U, r# l" q; b. Y
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
2 Q Z4 t! B; l# K* g8 `Internal Noise .......................... 959 @ \) S3 g: }+ x& @
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95/ [8 y! |2 y4 p" u* K; Q% U1 H% B
Output Impedance ...................... 99
4 s! z, j! c. P5 l. b" X4 rReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99( a9 [/ _5 o: ^5 D" q& v" `. ~
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
; I1 _, _6 T9 Q" z8 tImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101- j* c; O# t3 @! i& z, S, t- G1 @
Impact on Noise ........................ 102! {; N. Y" x; S! q3 Q
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
( l; J V, @- h& |* y5 `( HImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103) f: s* J5 s- G1 t% l, L# ~
How Poor Stability Propagates through ; T0 k6 ]! z0 [4 r% P4 T I
the System ................................. 103. [) e# s6 p' J* d3 j! x. Y
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106
6 h% O7 C5 s9 S% R" TEndnotes .................................... 108
* L# X, D+ v5 z) ~. c 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
. G- H& {2 E$ TSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109: ] |1 L; n* H& d
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
3 I' P- w* u' W. _" ]+ hTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123, I5 G4 B" n5 m R6 E! _3 {7 }
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139' K: {/ R! l1 S+ s ]4 @! m1 v
Impedance Adapters .................... 142+ B8 g7 \' n4 ^% g- ~
Endnotes .................................... 148
" y8 q x8 K" F$ w- ?# @ 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
+ s+ F% i% M% ?, nStability and Why It Matters .................... 151
: v5 x) b/ g, ~8 X4 rControl Loop Basics ..................... 151
8 |; {: i4 b3 @7 f' a% \- T C" KGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
6 \+ P2 {0 p3 z; b7 _# X6 LMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 1533 i& A% J P. [; r- d+ H% T
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154* H- F; n" A; j8 ~* m# a8 {
x
" h) F, c: Q$ M Contents
$ S5 M" U) a- f# P; _Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
9 h2 H5 j3 m. f+ W1 t6 j8 `Injection Devices ........................ 161
! F" E9 i E# A/ |" bSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164/ T( c8 s; t$ |, C. {
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 1693 ~0 O& L/ _! |2 S- C
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 1705 h# ~ g. d2 y* v
Forward Measurements .................. 1717 F$ H5 l, B3 _$ z E
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
; f! J0 [9 M$ j2 c/ {4 o5 o3 ONoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
4 d0 W: h" e/ D, W5 H3 D. \Endnotes .................................... 179+ i$ P6 G7 J1 @) E" A: V! z- m
" c% f6 q3 P1 ~9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
9 b |. @! o- Z2 SMeasurement Methods ........................ 182 e1 A# I; W$ I* r
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 1828 ~( y8 F5 N4 N5 J
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182% Y* e2 c/ f$ a, Q p" G+ E
Modulating the Input ......................... 1835 K. |) `/ A3 q( u
Line Injector ............................ 184
6 w) L1 s( _) ~+ DCurrent Injector ......................... 188& W% V/ a: G% d" y$ I0 K; r# q0 B. J
DC Amplifier ........................... 189: F* U- ]; H6 }; S( r/ C% N5 [
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189+ L% n" k1 O7 Q- A
VNA .................................. 189
0 a! g. u5 B& G& l& j+ ]1 u) vSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
8 f- ~+ L3 z5 `% f: aOscilloscope ............................ 190
6 L$ m; W { S: XProbes and Sensitivity ................... 190
& U; u* L5 Z; b+ m: U% oEndnotes .................................... 2002 T& R0 |) [: E8 P0 d4 D8 U: V
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
N5 a5 i% z j/ N" [Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
6 {; ~: R G/ o& O7 ]( p" lSeries Linear Regulators ................. 201
6 v4 a: ~: ~! v7 l' yShunt Regulators ....................... 2019 y4 {$ j C6 F6 G$ |7 {: a9 |' Y+ u
POL Regulators ......................... 203+ [4 F# v" H& U$ ^$ @
Operational Amplifiers .................. 2042 c6 q7 [* w9 K8 w
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204' j$ [& I9 K% o# Z1 D- Z2 d
Current Injector ......................... 205
$ l8 y3 Q, ^& z N/ `% l6 k" [( FDC Bias Injector ........................ 205
8 E5 f" t* `# O* u) PMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
. Z8 w: e: Y, `$ G$ n2 s3 ^4 g7 A) RCalibrating the Measurement ............. 205
9 {) M+ O* Z; A5 V% O- i: tMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207 ^" N' p) d0 y" r, m; L
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 2090 \& y' a+ Z" M4 S" Y
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209
6 Z2 i0 n' i! Q \Endnotes .................................... 216
4 o8 E4 K# O g# B6 I `0 P1 s 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2174 }- D0 A) t5 m: O
Generating the Transient ....................... 2172 H* e# C6 f5 F% T! y1 t+ r+ f3 H
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
w8 A6 W0 X! m# ~1 L2 L( V7 pSlew Rate .............................. 219
5 j0 Q, ~# Y' U- `& _7 L& b6 KCurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
6 j3 f5 Y2 B. p Contents 2 l3 `/ z; c. c6 x$ c' u, T
xi; k6 K, S! t- A) P
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223* X, C; o. N& o& R% O8 B) z
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 2230 z/ R- W% v4 L2 q
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
# `3 G# {- J, z/ y; mSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226. P, |, V0 m7 }+ m* v" r
Endnotes .................................... 232- N. T1 P$ ~2 r m: d5 K, U- k* Y" K
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233/ O4 c" d# V* u M% b2 ~
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 2345 p8 I ` D' c U. O. c
In or Out of System ..................... 234' r. R! p7 { o5 i
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
% e, ?* r* n2 _Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
3 Y- h6 r6 ^# M8 m' `) q7 n& |Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235" ~" |% x. v% ]! c
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235# a `2 S- e2 g# g
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236: P, x J# H( A8 r
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
! G. l; ^' S5 s7 o% k: L& w2 Z- bChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2372 b4 W6 |. w: F3 |
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252
0 T9 ~; _! v H2 iEndnotes .................................... 252) ]% Z. o, i5 W
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253+ ?& T+ A' f N+ u
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 2531 v+ t2 Q1 X$ W! K8 L4 H. ~
Cascading Rise Times ................... 2565 `/ g9 N" b/ D0 F& w! _
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
: Z& Q" O1 v. b: _! j1 TLimiting ............................. 2575 r" p1 Q) F. z3 q, [. T3 r
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261; P% I# _! |4 v; Z" W
Interpolation ................................. 264
- P- _' }2 _% A8 X& x n5 L+ aCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
2 E* L! n, c9 l E5 ]$ c4 qEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265" e5 C, n h, H* d( E
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 2679 A' i) `6 m$ m- M% L3 m, `
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
1 ]# Z8 W4 A8 v: xProbes ....................................... 269
& G2 S$ P" a- q' j! d9 vEndnotes .................................... 273
7 o3 p' L6 N1 F9 G. B+ h& S/ G 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
5 [% I1 X8 m$ ]) N7 U& eThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
! `! X; U4 X7 F1 I! B9 C% G. eThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 2777 D; o( Q- D" K3 @3 t) I
Probe and Orientation ......................... 2786 g: [. l% x. w, @9 A1 J0 p* s
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281
9 }3 O. y# h! E0 h' Q# i6 ESpectrum Gating .............................. 281* X& B5 e/ F+ L5 R$ |
Endnotes .................................... 295% H- M: k) [# X' Z8 a" u
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
4 A& F% Q5 f5 U4 a/ b9 {9 TTime Domain ................................. 2973 z+ M. p% a! |- |- d
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 2984 c6 ]! k; l o5 b3 K" H
Calibration ................................... 299
' g5 s7 Z9 T( a1 Z" c q. n, G; ]Reference Plane ............................... 300. X c- ^" D. m& v0 c4 U# l
xii- E( B l# y0 ], u( O! C, C
Contents
& ~+ j8 _; `& h3 d+ C, cSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 3033 q! F" w# @% Q% Z9 K0 P
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304! t u9 V5 K3 Y# z
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
* U. F: L8 W* h! [' r' L2 q: aS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314/ X6 M9 m' ^2 m; S0 c
Endnotes .................................... 3165 S: H: X4 P2 A! T- g( e+ h
Index ....................................... 319 |
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