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contents/ b8 B. T% F; X( v& J6 D& X- B- `) c
- ]# q! O+ B. ~8 B7 B( _0 R1 {
1 Introduction ................................. 1
% ?, ~, g1 n! C) qWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
! {( G/ W) p! p: ` TWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
7 H/ i) V! X8 b) F0 q8 ?The General Format of This Book ............... 2
( A% L% X- C* F+ {5 [$ v- z' k6 wWhy Measure .......................... 3% D3 L1 p2 j/ I: C5 A) [
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3) Z% `$ o: }% J( ^
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5) i& v6 L2 B7 I1 @& c! T
Troubleshooting ........................ 5- ~6 ~2 r' D$ R: _" _3 b/ X
Validation or Verification ................. 7 I, B, [$ A5 t+ G9 {0 W8 `. _6 K
Terminology ........................... 77 x8 M9 N4 u H' \: v6 b
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11 t: k6 R# F* C# E7 f1 T/ n
Cause No Damage ............................ 11 |1 x, J# |- I3 _8 C
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11# j8 t4 O! ?2 y% L' I7 G( f7 n4 I
Validate the Test Setup and - Y: `- D; G6 m- d, n6 h7 q3 F# j
Measurement Limits ........................ 122 i5 k. H8 j1 F9 y3 l9 t
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
- H. o7 K8 d6 uNoninvasive versus Invasive ( q5 i. D. Z3 g! d" k
Measurement ........................ 145 D! D; Y+ R# ~# N8 x* h {- p
In situ Measurement .................... 14
( v |/ [1 h$ u5 s) ]. {0 wIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
! z- x' A9 P% Y- n* UDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
, s' `8 i5 c4 @1 r# g/ kThe Test Engineer and Contact 4 E* Z8 I+ P, _0 B( }$ a# I* V
Information .......................... 15
9 {: ^3 X, @. `The Purpose of the Test .................. 168 ?/ `4 ~( u7 h4 x5 }0 m& Y
Simulated or Expected Results if
8 J9 N* u$ u5 {Available ............................ 17- L w2 m, X9 R) g/ N& _
The Date and Physical Location
6 `: }3 Z* c( `2 n$ s& p- [( Kof the Testing ........................ 18
! ?- m' P1 w+ @) G) a% h% ZOperational Test Environment
9 n( A3 F. T9 j! Mand Conditions ....................... 180 M- l, K- s3 t: I& y$ W! f0 }
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 1 y4 C, u& d; w* }0 j, S) M+ ^, x
(Including Probes) and Verification That 5 }: ?2 b" K! u! j$ [" o& A
They Are Calibrated .................. 18* t& ~( m! a. {) e
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19: Y( X$ l5 w0 ~
Measurement Annotations and 0 |4 ~" x% [% K& f A7 V, R
Comments .......................... 20
- j8 ~( [4 c; r' _5 C" p5 YAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20
2 X, x# F2 W( k l2 X, O: |% x; C$ N* X- s; g
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
# Y4 w7 S9 V L3 \8 S2 ?Sensitivity ................................... 21
- J3 [5 u3 n+ }1 v, `: S: gNoise Floor .................................. 22
" B* @; A. d$ [ M6 M: N* r' x* LDynamic Range .............................. 22) E& X# q# D; [3 Y) U8 p9 ^% ^! E
Noise Density ................................ 27
. G3 @5 g, X+ C* b* o, |& B1 hSignal Averaging ............................. 31! o# t! s+ S: S, e
Scaling ...................................... 33" }: C- e, m9 ], ~. M
Attenuators .................................. 34
$ F. T6 V# L# Y5 O9 L, QPreamplifiers ................................. 35! \9 k, j& f# r% X2 _/ I
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
' ^ B1 e5 k( {4 U( t! \8 ], cMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
Y# g% R" Q9 Y0 ~Frequency Domain ...................... 38' W- S: d" _( H" h* }9 S% ~
Gain and Phase ......................... 387 A: _% n$ k, d. V
S-Parameters ........................... 385 j) m1 C, @- P8 h3 }
Impedance ............................. 395 _7 z: y$ \ @- c" }1 N
Time Domain ........................... 40
* o H5 r/ K$ t7 F: x$ \/ ~& G$ L# wSpectrum Domain ....................... 423 s& \- l' _/ j- l
Comparing Domains .................... 448 l2 ~( r5 W- b2 b+ g5 m$ d0 P
Endnotes .................................... 466 ~% n% Y8 d2 `! g7 r5 `# V
4 Test Instruments ............................. 478 J3 G# h9 S4 v- W7 \8 p3 H
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector $ `/ ]! B$ R& T, j9 M2 j# e
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
; [$ u* q% [' O% _) L! {OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
7 ]0 m: x4 [" z' `" J2 D' C0 DAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 501 i3 ]8 z+ J% x1 q% L- K
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
, W5 o3 v; D& B2 }4 X, XTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51! y5 b# |' G# I8 S8 e: i
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52/ C. P( T% K5 Y
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
/ ^: B! l( I" W5 b F! k9 nTektronix DPO72004B ................... 540 N9 ~; g8 h( R% o9 s* Q6 i! s4 L' M; u
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55* |$ m9 h ^" h8 F2 M1 z% h+ ?
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
6 B9 p3 S8 ?) T; h6 ?: K- GTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
^7 b; o, B# h8 y. bTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
& I0 q P0 d& i/ x$ a$ I" m. v1 z2 k5 |OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59- k' F n0 @ f8 n9 g8 ^/ T
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
( r3 }0 Z/ t( p, a' J2 I; k) mTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
! H0 \* g& L& v4 i# }4 ]7 V: e& ?0 DAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60, g0 p4 o. T. U2 F6 h
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61% I8 Q& ^6 z+ G R. Y- U
Signal Generators ............................. 621 W; h# `& }2 B2 `( ~. {- @
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
3 M# b( b" D8 q3 S! @TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
* B1 |9 o: \6 L! f5 \) \0 ~7 ZPicotest G5100A ........................ 63% J2 k5 h) z6 C# L
; Q o$ b; b i4 Y- f1 t8 o- M, @
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63( V( _" X7 M& e* o
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 658 [ Q3 `5 n/ S2 y
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
. S& n2 q/ G. g0 v+ |5 g# e' R 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 691 X- j) y# y! `5 V2 s
Voltage Probes ................................ 69
# i) C! i H, p0 \2 }8 @Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70& Y& C* }6 g" ]
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
9 ?3 K$ p. d3 R$ zConfirming Measurements ............... 74 U# z5 V: j u- k* i6 G+ L$ F* B) D5 F
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
4 l" l5 x ~/ U+ YPassive Probes .......................... 77. i( @& P; i; k4 b( F! j
Active Probes .......................... 79
8 d: j7 h3 P1 E* U' Q1 v# kDifferential Probes ...................... 79) m8 t, L9 Q1 ^! h
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
; d) ]) w! I* L b$ tOther Connections ...................... 91
- ~( C5 h- n, e7 a, r. ~$ ?4 e s% nEndnotes .................................... 91
$ n0 d' j: k7 T8 C, E2 R 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
d% I+ _, B8 F2 GNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
. Z0 S$ m9 r {2 G& g0 |" \6 LInternal Noise .......................... 95& B. X. B2 |) r
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
9 t0 Y# `# p( D) SOutput Impedance ...................... 99
; v( U1 m% Q( W* BReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
0 k! P2 D! _- h6 ~! E! g% Z) N: C, CControl Loop Stability ......................... 101! C. {7 |( s. v% L1 }+ T' R7 N
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 1017 a2 h/ x6 Z( F% k' U4 K) q2 C9 i3 H
Impact on Noise ........................ 102: @, @) x8 g7 U# X5 B
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
( a7 |0 W! B/ [- vImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
% h% Y5 t x! ^How Poor Stability Propagates through ; B$ `7 l0 m( z4 ?
the System ................................. 103
! X, _% c% h( l: ~Adding the PDNs ....................... 1065 o1 Z" x' f" N! d, G. o/ m& r' p
Endnotes .................................... 108
: P/ t; w5 N2 k/ S/ k2 [1 z 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
8 Y: O s; u5 c1 x1 rSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
1 N3 E: ?- o& r- [Single-Port Measurements ............... 109/ y2 Q8 W* r7 Q; p0 m- T( t. I5 k
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
' d1 x- H, L8 a# f' T4 KCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139
/ [" c; ^% b7 ~/ A7 eImpedance Adapters .................... 1427 M9 y: A0 w( P; M: O2 `. F6 j
Endnotes .................................... 148# w. j! ~* C. l W# V
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
. C8 w; Z8 L% @& ` a2 ^8 vStability and Why It Matters .................... 151* u" x1 _1 M0 R, R- d$ x
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151) o; x; Z6 C4 I
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay ( L4 C; ]+ F7 E
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
2 x9 G3 W- v/ W0 J- rBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
5 s3 f/ X/ `/ r$ b4 s* Jx" L5 A% H. [9 J
Contents+ k" k R$ V0 Z" c2 S7 ~0 h! F* E0 G
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159$ p) p& ^5 q5 u n3 P) W1 F
Injection Devices ........................ 161
" a- W/ n5 j2 [1 q* U7 [Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164* x1 o! `. [7 i' `! w; H; V
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 1692 N L9 l5 d4 ?3 i8 T) r
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
1 g: K0 N/ ?) u+ e0 v, {Forward Measurements .................. 171
* C6 c& \, x4 f( h Q/ G! v) X6 gMinor Loop Gain ....................... 1716 h7 \6 L* {$ X6 e+ K' g
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
1 L$ t/ X2 |2 p9 k+ PEndnotes .................................... 1797 Q2 e! d+ ]4 l7 p& @+ p
; @. i, ]1 \& a& [! I% j9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181& ~3 W* R" j* F0 O: A- l# E
Measurement Methods ........................ 1829 s* l/ x( a% [6 t3 Y, D' H
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
2 h& b k6 `. nDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
) Y9 S0 |+ F3 o. |. f3 Y+ j- lModulating the Input ......................... 183/ B {( Z3 A- A& V4 B
Line Injector ............................ 1846 g+ K8 k) z7 w% H
Current Injector ......................... 1881 \0 Z8 }4 p) B# b% m
DC Amplifier ........................... 1891 o1 [5 Q8 R9 d% a* G' c: y D
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
1 x+ i, T# G+ j$ [/ u2 zVNA .................................. 189: u) Z& Y* z. k) W9 y4 t
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189 S% ]/ c( i* I( v R
Oscilloscope ............................ 190
$ i* B3 \- f- NProbes and Sensitivity ................... 1906 Q! @ c# e5 D1 x- }8 o
Endnotes .................................... 2002 X1 T9 L) d4 E- o3 ?5 o0 f+ t
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
- }; O6 x: {6 i, ~. B5 D3 lReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
" H% I1 J6 F* mSeries Linear Regulators ................. 201
+ V/ ~- {+ m3 y* J0 n; k w) lShunt Regulators ....................... 201
1 v4 m7 a6 F9 _+ J6 }POL Regulators ......................... 203* o8 s" W- @* t2 }
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
K. x( S( `7 QModulating the Output Current ................ 204/ ?# m+ w1 C- q6 a/ Q8 |! a
Current Injector ......................... 205% g; j3 i; @3 H- { _8 n
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205
$ h" L% u8 c9 s) Y7 {7 kMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
6 [( L9 K9 i" O+ ECalibrating the Measurement ............. 205
; }8 E4 O: b' GMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
' z& i% N: z3 I8 Z+ l7 TCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2097 W) O3 ]' g, @4 O' Q* d
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209
! U& L# ]) ?8 Y2 U+ _+ J& V( y" O6 t9 \Endnotes .................................... 2161 i0 d6 f! i2 M0 @$ {
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
; @' D8 x+ J/ ? mGenerating the Transient ....................... 217( g# S( W* t$ Z8 q* _& B1 k3 ~7 T/ t
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217* A+ r- b g% D% X+ O) u
Slew Rate .............................. 219! _' ]2 t, R' a8 Q# C) H
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
& g% i, ?$ V5 @- N* z: {- F {! U Contents
% g, \" P+ q; jxi9 p( _9 X" r( t! R
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
' @' L2 u; Z) ELarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
) V( M2 j: m( D0 VNotes about Averaging .................. 224
! ^! `% Q" i4 X5 q) T3 `& xSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 2269 ^7 e) }, \/ T- k3 |- ?' P# p9 c4 e
Endnotes .................................... 232
2 ~) g+ F( N" ~) ~0 v) z! P 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 2332 `. b, N$ B% x" G% e# E
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
" w# { ^" c" i) L U2 t: O$ sIn or Out of System ..................... 2343 `8 k' t% s1 \$ v6 j* f( I
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
. E2 V/ D: n1 ~2 g; kTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234
8 ?4 P7 y( b w7 G4 LConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235: r4 u; W" d/ e6 ~# _
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
% j; O5 o, h7 f6 y: ~- t) e6 KActive Scope Probes ..................... 236" ?0 O8 C% E4 @" ]9 x
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
" j4 ?+ w! s `$ D$ `Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
0 ]; _4 L2 u. D" wAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252, Q( N: X9 R, L* O' h- h; }" _
Endnotes .................................... 2524 f, B( S1 ^ m/ C9 y
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
5 `! B4 D: N. P/ Q V) C3 qRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253! P7 J: ?/ @$ U2 ] }
Cascading Rise Times ................... 2568 x1 D3 N4 V' i0 W! L
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
9 ?' E, w! ]1 K4 g5 i" j3 [- TLimiting ............................. 257
0 o5 I- U$ e5 B% i2 z% g0 q4 mSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261) [1 Z$ ~- V& ]- d6 a0 f" P" P! i
Interpolation ................................. 264) g. A$ ?- V1 y5 l# J3 c9 @: h
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265. ~: z! T9 ^1 y7 s: t; x
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
, O" `& k' ^/ _. iThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
0 N! b5 v2 G" {Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
% v7 L: T8 ]# }$ _. kProbes ....................................... 269. R" n8 {* j. B: X" p$ X, x
Endnotes .................................... 273+ T) C1 B2 e0 H; k9 U% e* S e& M
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
) K6 R5 F2 N- h I" xThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275: j6 }2 j; _, N/ I! A9 M% z
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
! Z" H2 }! N; J- tProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
4 ^8 O, \* }% [$ w S8 jThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
8 h! [, Q8 o( [Spectrum Gating .............................. 281# c, J$ |; _1 f4 Y$ E* A
Endnotes .................................... 295
' s& [; C% O1 g$ B; H 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
0 F/ C+ `5 Y+ ^- O+ RTime Domain ................................. 297
L1 K: i& O! v! t% E6 G. xTime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
1 v5 w* C& {/ n8 Y7 ~Calibration ................................... 299
1 {8 D$ X& O: j, n3 [ @/ bReference Plane ............................... 300
9 O4 A5 C0 y- l) I" Dxii
. i j! H: @* V" w. b2 R Contents
8 X, ?/ C. L, m p" u7 l0 E; ESetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
: ]9 C7 W* ^6 l: v# Z6 KInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
/ a a( P5 _& P8 @8 i4 O" c3 @Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307( b+ W6 d0 n; M
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
5 O8 L1 v& p7 M7 f- `0 S' vEndnotes .................................... 316
, Z# Z+ i# q! B5 ^$ K; u: [: e Index ....................................... 319 |
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