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contents: |1 R7 z* D2 b/ f. F2 e
% x$ O5 E5 R$ E- |& S9 u
1 Introduction ................................. 1# e0 V- \( q6 s' m0 j) z o
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
( a$ M+ o5 T2 h& a* AWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2) c ~# J, x6 B" d; E, g; _
The General Format of This Book ............... 2; Z8 D& i0 `* t' K( N
Why Measure .......................... 3
% [) I1 D' r5 K GObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
7 ^- n7 A/ Y$ G. ?3 r) c: FDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
& _+ y& G7 N) y% Z: {& j1 ^) i, vTroubleshooting ........................ 50 M) c2 V' P8 j o0 l" Z3 u
Validation or Verification ................. 7
4 T. E7 V; M, B$ _) iTerminology ........................... 7
( C3 I9 u1 N2 H- {) T9 I2 J 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
1 a5 A$ i; J3 }Cause No Damage ............................ 11
' c9 K" Y( o9 l0 O, n$ |% BMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11" `1 ]/ S( X$ W6 e7 V4 y$ K/ A/ w
Validate the Test Setup and , p- W" M& ^+ ~& N+ L8 D
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
8 s6 t5 N" s7 k4 {! B! A0 VMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14; C/ c; J3 A V* p
Noninvasive versus Invasive
1 ~& R5 a. O' S6 ~6 Q3 s3 h4 GMeasurement ........................ 14
! q' o8 E( H" Z ^, a1 eIn situ Measurement .................... 14& R" e! L! A6 `4 ]1 t
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
5 W9 |7 @ y- g5 S" g+ {0 GDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 157 I$ l3 U0 t' S
The Test Engineer and Contact
0 m( |% [, r% Z0 j9 L- F+ ?/ c$ T# MInformation .......................... 15
: D; a+ R) f3 D8 [8 V9 q, v/ l2 gThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16# G' s, }) @/ @7 Z& N+ w. ~3 y6 g
Simulated or Expected Results if 3 r8 M1 A4 W9 E5 ?3 [9 [" @
Available ............................ 177 v- H9 t; ~6 \+ _
The Date and Physical Location
. F9 B9 G* X: s; |6 Wof the Testing ........................ 18) e$ W9 X# F* y! D& L
Operational Test Environment
% v& `4 b' ?2 j, rand Conditions ....................... 18
0 {: I3 \+ x, ^- IThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
; Z' N6 p8 D% U(Including Probes) and Verification That ! B9 m/ i1 i, g/ ^/ _$ \- W$ e5 k
They Are Calibrated .................. 18. x, {% J+ ^9 ]) `" r8 ^
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19. ^' F/ |- X" c$ W ?2 f
Measurement Annotations and 2 A D. a- i) @3 f( s
Comments .......................... 20
8 @' N) o d7 z) {, sAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20- ]- J+ p4 O7 A( }0 M+ n
, G$ h+ ]9 m: q0 o" b% d4 H3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 216 b+ w+ Q$ ^8 U5 ~9 Q
Sensitivity ................................... 21
9 D1 y. W7 K, G& S5 t+ _Noise Floor .................................. 22& q: I2 ]+ h6 i+ d9 _+ m: m4 ~
Dynamic Range .............................. 227 g j) L% E8 t0 W
Noise Density ................................ 27
) [1 j9 l! u0 |5 e4 v" M$ B! S, r% tSignal Averaging ............................. 31# j' ^$ g0 e) N5 ]- G% ~
Scaling ...................................... 33
- m* c5 |' M/ \- l% G, o: GAttenuators .................................. 34
3 G# u/ w8 R2 n2 T" E1 q3 _; \Preamplifiers ................................. 350 x/ L4 c5 v1 V
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
0 s9 L3 T4 i+ T. x9 SMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
1 H# v+ _7 J, sFrequency Domain ...................... 38
" |* ?/ g h1 C9 ]( BGain and Phase ......................... 38
* Z7 g9 `& k# d! s; {S-Parameters ........................... 38
* q& x. [4 j* eImpedance ............................. 39! _9 o( l- I, Q T4 i) t
Time Domain ........................... 409 [+ W& J1 ~: ~$ I- y' M: i4 b
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42& F g. }: U* L+ N8 [
Comparing Domains .................... 449 H. v) Y- F/ `! R k
Endnotes .................................... 46
5 N! T) `8 C4 K/ d5 V 4 Test Instruments ............................. 477 ?: v: N0 C' h8 S! R' x9 D* x
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector " R. S+ U# q) ~, |% ~# A
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
. } P: H3 T) y! XOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
' h4 |+ D1 h% \: A$ Z3 p" b; yAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 506 z. \5 m# P$ P8 s. s/ P' Q
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
' W. K5 b8 H$ _4 g! ?& I6 MTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
/ |) c. M. X& {Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52, j# Z5 P; ^- H+ m' o ?% Y- k
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53" H% L/ |# W- L& |
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
/ _; u! f4 N m: {0 R( ZTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55- L3 Q9 f0 ]3 g9 C0 K: Y' x, B+ w5 X
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
Z5 z8 e/ b5 j$ HTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
M( E3 n1 q' h& ^" @4 h7 g! DTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58# T. y3 y9 S3 m) _
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59. ]/ H# U( r+ o( H ]' {( b* C
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
* N3 O. j* A( q1 {; {) H% X D* ETektronix RSA5106A .................... 59" `$ v! [, ]8 O9 H
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
" B9 N: c" _5 u: PAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61# m& Y$ A: c/ R8 q1 G
Signal Generators ............................. 62' s) M: i) O6 z; V7 z6 u; [7 B6 Q- Q
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
1 v: k- F% E0 X6 u7 \# g5 y1 `TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 639 W0 B4 e4 q; n& P# P1 d8 A6 u: ^
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63) d$ J) X: H; M! G
: b3 t; Y1 t' Y# BTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63! c B0 V- B) M+ ~7 |7 x
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
" m& E+ Z" l; J, E' t5 T$ }Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 661 X: y# I6 Q+ W
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69- x9 L- A7 E' [! G( m+ u
Voltage Probes ................................ 69& z# ]! j1 Y" S( i4 w5 Y
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70' G d" u/ O& }
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72/ M1 w& Y) m: ^. C' b
Confirming Measurements ............... 74
7 s: Z8 R) t9 M8 m) f' wSelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
2 @' l6 R& u4 }0 n5 @/ rPassive Probes .......................... 77# ^! |# f. P4 W3 ]& j. o" S
Active Probes .......................... 79# V1 r% c; b* x, ]1 ^3 v3 a
Differential Probes ...................... 798 G7 z& d" R) `8 f
Specialty Probes ........................ 80* B7 o) X1 Y. E1 J& |1 c4 Q3 p
Other Connections ...................... 91; m6 {2 h8 \: ^' ]
Endnotes .................................... 91/ K- h: n: Q5 v, A) o
6 The Distributed System ....................... 935 ^; k; Q# f2 _/ D" n/ W2 y, [) Z* d
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
4 A0 S& h* J; a4 r. W. oInternal Noise .......................... 954 h8 {5 O" E$ z
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95/ p" f5 J1 K2 N0 d3 ]& H
Output Impedance ...................... 99
; p& f4 ~6 N# L( p; U) f5 c f o ]Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99; q; @1 `, Q% e, k
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
9 L% q5 {; G+ B( xImpact on Output Impedance ............ 1013 g2 }/ _0 u$ s3 v* e7 B$ z
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
5 e& J. W0 ?# [; w( `Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
3 K3 i/ g/ P& V$ D- @- TImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
( @' w* d1 s5 \) c, V, @8 xHow Poor Stability Propagates through
' s9 n N8 _- O3 G* Wthe System ................................. 103" E8 d. R4 x9 D# `7 I# d
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106
2 n* n( r7 \) h1 D1 m+ ZEndnotes .................................... 108
9 `* u) z) q$ `( u( W! o' Z 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1090 t1 Q: a! N0 D' I7 L3 m
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109# w4 L) S3 b! z" o. k% `! |; ^
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109/ U3 Z0 I2 }4 e+ [
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
( E0 A- l* D* f* eCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139; n" x! {$ H# m- C
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
( V$ v9 C2 p5 A+ D& |* t- r$ W, CEndnotes .................................... 148) z# |$ F: w9 T. S) H+ h
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
& W8 Y+ h8 d" B' O$ `* ~Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151! q3 K) {2 k4 X' [ C
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151+ m& t& q1 x. J/ U" {: e
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay 4 L1 N/ B& x: K( f1 [
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 1533 j9 m; R5 V5 i- h% ~* G5 P7 p
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154) }7 H( q1 z8 ^8 ~( n0 O- r, p
x6 b. u' v% q9 u5 D" U$ d1 E/ u; W7 \% r
Contents8 u9 A- [- Y+ ~3 I$ l5 ]# n5 H
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159+ f8 [( d7 v) N# O# G
Injection Devices ........................ 1617 q" ? J: ? r3 c& m7 n
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164; D6 H1 L6 ]" f' }3 X/ j7 _
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
3 m {, z2 O. V9 \7 [ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
4 n, ^1 c+ {1 k( aForward Measurements .................. 1710 ]$ x6 h, L! \
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
0 E# w: Y5 c; \' ^, d6 a7 sNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
$ |2 C1 C1 k d4 h$ P! ?Endnotes .................................... 179& J6 V* d f/ y
; B h- g; O; \" s4 w9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
2 i ]& }) h" \$ U* v# IMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
+ P+ e8 U" a7 M- P* SIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182+ P* ]2 _6 O6 [9 u" x
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 1824 w' w- ~1 ?& v q1 E/ k; u8 w7 @
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
; X' s7 S9 A% o' [ Q7 eLine Injector ............................ 184
' n, k9 ^, W2 [4 ~. K$ K+ |; t" ECurrent Injector ......................... 188
+ u! a" u! j$ P- Y8 E: ODC Amplifier ........................... 189% t( M8 c+ Y; P7 q$ H s0 x" W7 O
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
3 z2 e! T: o& l: @8 s4 CVNA .................................. 189
2 W; p" k# j- U, dSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
8 L3 K. { d, O# y1 W* q; \Oscilloscope ............................ 190
* s! A, V3 D. S: lProbes and Sensitivity ................... 190
+ F& z' L2 }& p" dEndnotes .................................... 2003 {: f9 U6 N( L2 ]) i$ L
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201. s7 b* M/ g) G- ?1 T
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201* m/ n6 z: F" a3 @& X
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
( b2 E4 b4 a" h* `) {6 bShunt Regulators ....................... 2013 r2 S& d2 R `. E) [0 w& w/ x
POL Regulators ......................... 203
8 j! D8 U9 J0 `Operational Amplifiers .................. 204" t7 i# n2 P0 Q
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204
) S- s `' T6 X) w8 gCurrent Injector ......................... 205& @ H# ~* ?/ n2 k8 K# w/ n! Q
DC Bias Injector ........................ 2050 D0 c3 P3 f+ X0 [
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205$ J2 {: n; M1 \+ I/ d+ a% N9 U
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
- W" J" Z1 X' _Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
8 g& \& R$ {5 ?# t7 V/ dCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2091 ~5 C7 d4 i" [: z
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209
- N5 o% E. x9 p& `! ^Endnotes .................................... 216
2 G8 k: K4 d( @ 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
6 O3 A/ r5 G3 M5 FGenerating the Transient ....................... 217, O# ~) W a8 B7 z! R3 x) K4 ?
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
) Q, M# X, G, A2 S" `- YSlew Rate .............................. 219" I. J3 H# R5 z1 t4 d1 s8 C
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 2216 V6 B! \ |1 Z0 Z- }( v6 C6 e
Contents
& I' I3 T7 g3 R6 F4 e/ Txi
9 g4 ]' @7 f& k9 D4 N ]6 V* fMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223. [( T( ]) s, b" R/ n* y5 R
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 2234 u3 _7 Q& y2 J: v) o+ q
Notes about Averaging .................. 224, O& M8 ~5 D" X2 C
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
, }; E% P, X% D6 P7 J% M CEndnotes .................................... 232$ W b1 l: \1 n" l9 h; h
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
/ i- R7 Y6 c7 T [, e6 x. v, ^5 FSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
3 w$ m* q6 s; u, D( T" |In or Out of System ..................... 234
; Z% M6 E0 T2 }8 p5 x: RDirect or Indirect ....................... 2344 ^! L" C" {6 H$ k; y! |: x# R$ j6 Y
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
" g6 a7 D' f5 z1 l4 \* pConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235 a, |) }/ P/ y7 ~* U4 m
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235" _1 m) I- Q2 a& i
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
; }, V/ z" N& ~% N m, kDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236. ]3 M4 R1 n- S
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
- g" j% L7 v7 g5 u2 Q" wAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252" J+ u ]2 k: @0 Z/ {! v8 ` S9 N
Endnotes .................................... 252
, U* O* S" b1 Q" {3 ~! r 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253! b* m" H( t: X4 u0 V
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
: a$ `8 r- N& P/ c* ?Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
% y2 \3 d+ @9 O$ I9 j. SImpact of Filters and Bandwidth
5 j; b. }/ R" l/ oLimiting ............................. 257
# v) Y2 Z: @6 c/ xSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 2618 h7 o0 ]3 z D) N2 X
Interpolation ................................. 264; Q% C' o3 k5 Z" n% j, n
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
# O3 ^% D( k @Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
& [( t' K' Y' J4 y" ] p& qThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
6 }, {2 g" b5 IPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
( [6 _- ?$ M+ }3 ?% v; mProbes ....................................... 2698 y4 r+ [! h, G: N
Endnotes .................................... 2733 K- N2 C+ O# t
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
6 G5 S5 o! ~# \! j/ P$ JThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 2757 N+ S4 J5 ]) s) L+ f, D D) |0 \
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
" z( I$ ]) [6 |( L: RProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
: ~. T7 \+ Q9 _8 g& [' LThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
! B& B; ?0 l2 |9 |4 @3 rSpectrum Gating .............................. 2819 H6 }( g+ ]- r$ s' @) O) m5 v1 V& y
Endnotes .................................... 295
! S: s9 @2 Z& ^# C 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
8 i% E N0 U4 `& }2 @! iTime Domain ................................. 297
+ |# @6 O$ g7 C* p9 |Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
' t$ h" X( s" Y6 n* t0 g. ~Calibration ................................... 299
& B: B' Z2 r" V4 A9 GReference Plane ............................... 300
" R* ?$ K; P5 ?. X5 X) _4 bxii
- Z- d+ j6 L7 N; e1 K0 ]! t Contents* t: z5 b* [9 z/ m! i
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
! M$ y# }& b9 |9 Q+ T9 jInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
7 K- [7 d; S2 _2 \8 }$ r. V& ~Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307$ v1 v) u* R) Q' l
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
; |; W3 Q0 J4 F( {- M4 b( EEndnotes .................................... 316
$ ?0 ?: x3 e' c+ M: ?" ^ Index ....................................... 319 |
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