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contents9 G/ L' y1 {+ \$ c- _6 ?$ d& Y+ b
X0 a- o' i# @) ]" U5 _1 Introduction ................................. 1. d" O" B: d( t% F1 j, D
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
; g/ H! G* ]2 o* QWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2! A0 H, r( `+ E
The General Format of This Book ............... 2+ A* I/ P) @. U* A
Why Measure .......................... 3! v8 g* Y& v% ?% r9 y, G/ n' u" g
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
) V+ F: s1 x! u& KDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
4 B7 A/ o$ m) ~1 ~. l: oTroubleshooting ........................ 5' c$ D3 z" H5 V4 i" a- p! R
Validation or Verification ................. 7
3 T, v* T9 R+ L: yTerminology ........................... 7
& M }2 Q2 Z( b: h; r 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
) w6 z4 d% i2 I: ]3 gCause No Damage ............................ 11
+ r* t8 R3 T5 f! M- \ TMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11+ ~1 w: g8 ]5 ` v+ G U5 e" P
Validate the Test Setup and
$ |$ a* H/ Y/ @! D! sMeasurement Limits ........................ 12
& ]8 V a8 E. t0 O+ qMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
D& B" k L4 m/ v7 Y& YNoninvasive versus Invasive " d1 w( |( k5 j
Measurement ........................ 141 p) c4 t8 F- K, P J. u
In situ Measurement .................... 14- q B) J, j9 N& N) }* z
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
5 m O) X! Y) F; ZDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
0 l- a" ]& b7 bThe Test Engineer and Contact 6 N) [ N- k. u9 C9 w" A' F: j
Information .......................... 15
5 a9 o5 I P; M6 k5 }) W1 e' nThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16$ S/ e+ L9 M' M& T9 B3 ]- b
Simulated or Expected Results if
' u# u4 I1 h! G3 p* ]( A# h. PAvailable ............................ 17
1 m5 @7 p& }. c* i' jThe Date and Physical Location
, I0 {5 ^/ ?% m2 Rof the Testing ........................ 18! r8 g2 I* W6 U* E2 d7 G$ T
Operational Test Environment
+ i7 h8 {) c9 N8 L: e6 Qand Conditions ....................... 184 n0 v0 J' b5 R3 V
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
1 D0 |) g7 U. G" Z( @(Including Probes) and Verification That 9 x4 r2 V( A0 p3 J+ w
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
7 q" m& k! }/ }( @Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
+ g) c$ h0 v* g$ TMeasurement Annotations and
6 d4 i2 D ^4 W, g# {1 Y) |Comments .......................... 20- G$ [) t v& ~& _- K2 J1 h
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
& G& x* Y1 y# Q3 y: r! h3 D$ ~/ h; k1 j
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 214 |4 i8 l2 Z) A( V0 A" ~
Sensitivity ................................... 21
$ b0 P& [3 ?. v8 vNoise Floor .................................. 22( U) r: T h8 l) z$ j
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
, F! i- X* ^- `Noise Density ................................ 278 g* q; H! f; a: I- G! G( ?
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
. h* }0 f7 H/ n/ n' D: n1 QScaling ...................................... 33
# e* s; W" e2 |8 Q3 rAttenuators .................................. 34/ O: N' ?, O, Z9 P
Preamplifiers ................................. 35! D. l* l, K8 }
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36' b1 h* |. Y5 l# h! k4 E: ?& r* N% \
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
/ n g# k2 K! r w; o) cFrequency Domain ...................... 38
- P- G! h! n l7 U1 u8 U2 |: `Gain and Phase ......................... 38" W2 Q, p5 i7 Y$ Z
S-Parameters ........................... 38* A$ g" [& R2 l) F, b
Impedance ............................. 39) d* B& `2 l! S: `$ Q3 N" h
Time Domain ........................... 40, Y' E$ j, e2 V* a- L. I
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42
$ u ?4 j# G+ B0 tComparing Domains .................... 442 d; T* _ V; B. _- M
Endnotes .................................... 461 d5 [ w4 X7 f/ r% S
4 Test Instruments ............................. 476 d% J5 {$ w/ W
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
: R% M6 k" p( L* u: w. m1 F1 I3 {7 zNetwork Analyzers ......................... 479 @. ~7 [# L1 e% R
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
( @- u8 D& e$ p) w1 NAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50. e' M4 M& |7 t0 |5 Q, d3 Y; k
Oscilloscopes ................................. 507 O; q3 j# Z5 _+ M: x' b
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
4 i1 q4 Q* W% i& k. \2 tRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
! B5 G2 @; b8 p) hTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
- x# y8 r$ S" DTektronix DPO72004B ................... 540 e; u; o2 |% r; U, Q/ f- M: Y! s" u, L
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
+ V* q* n' q9 e& f( nTektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
; ^, g9 ]4 Y. T" w% D4 e ~; jTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
& m5 n2 D8 r' vTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
' q- p; p/ a) y* eOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59, P$ _6 |( p+ i* l3 ], z0 p: G! z
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59" E3 f6 z0 c" S2 H& e
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
" r/ }5 |" T4 lAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
0 ~& {1 V6 G3 y6 ?; }Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61# Y5 Y7 D1 q, [; v
Signal Generators ............................. 62
- d" O& [# H9 D Z1 x' f% N: R, cAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
9 `, p1 ^- v, U+ w4 hTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63+ q3 }" k- e A+ d! \
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63, h, N6 b) [* P u2 s2 T' v: D, [- ?
. E6 x3 ]' }) K: v+ T% K! F
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63$ B2 Y. ?5 v2 G% e
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65: e! g F* F4 ?) _; _' j8 H
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
: |& h/ g7 U$ B+ F, o5 Q# G# ], F 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
: t- p5 Y1 ?" f' X* \6 XVoltage Probes ................................ 69
* ~+ P' q! s- E; V8 T/ J0 a. U" oProbe Circuit Interaction ................. 70+ f0 P( T4 v* u# {2 h+ f8 z
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 727 D" w0 H& v3 d" X
Confirming Measurements ............... 74
$ n& H% {- q$ U! R ESelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75! O" h0 A8 q5 b) X# C/ l
Passive Probes .......................... 77# @( N& B1 q$ o2 T& Q' G
Active Probes .......................... 79
6 a- C( a1 L/ N9 k# }/ ?2 v- u0 ?Differential Probes ...................... 792 Y* ^# A1 w& F) v9 T7 z' a5 p! n0 ^
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
* @, m7 l9 m b) l; J VOther Connections ...................... 91) G$ `2 n; t8 U" G
Endnotes .................................... 912 P, C0 @* w; J' a2 X* m* @
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93, a( c! M7 n; l6 I" [! z4 I2 y
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
; r5 z& E, M& |5 Q7 G; v$ Q/ WInternal Noise .......................... 95$ u9 ~$ L' C8 Y' X6 u, P- D
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
& ^: \5 O0 n4 w) a* pOutput Impedance ...................... 99
" ~. k9 f4 L- qReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99- ]! ]+ x) u# t5 [1 f" q: |5 m
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
: N2 E! U3 M8 F) _$ @( w, NImpact on Output Impedance ............ 1010 u% [3 E+ R4 E n2 ]
Impact on Noise ........................ 102/ w9 i( {3 E8 A* D- U4 g
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102& L6 k# T, R2 G& l
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
- i+ \2 b, Y) k7 F+ XHow Poor Stability Propagates through 7 y0 `& d) n) j" h4 i
the System ................................. 1032 V8 u1 F3 p- ?2 ^7 {* X, I
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106
. i/ U. c5 N& v3 R9 TEndnotes .................................... 108
; @" a1 p' f0 \ 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109- j7 m7 k# d, T- ~1 Q- m
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
8 j5 H# t$ L% b* Y; o0 FSingle-Port Measurements ............... 1093 h- O5 {# j8 x8 w+ h6 }0 E' J& b
Two-Port Measurements ................. 1235 p. ]# P4 j6 D* \3 o" T, c
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139
) x. Y! {1 ~6 W- g9 }2 _Impedance Adapters .................... 142. }2 v) f& B& t& w# ?) s
Endnotes .................................... 148
; z# O* \( N5 } 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151( y- A0 G7 X' d$ p' i/ a
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151
# E4 W% {# S" Q- `% I& q- aControl Loop Basics ..................... 1515 t/ Q" W. e4 o3 v/ `# d+ e5 {
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay + d; t$ ~$ j N+ }
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
9 d) Z* o) y; o _7 MBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
- o6 {7 ]1 x& ]$ ]x
8 B, b0 @, i- z) V5 V" `/ s3 b Contents
7 i6 ?. r0 F( A' p9 [% K' D- TOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159
+ h S/ x, d$ D. z# \3 QInjection Devices ........................ 161 D0 `. x7 N4 ` p; q: z/ Q; P
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164+ V( @/ J2 O% Y% Z
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
( D. j* X* t' P9 W1 f8 q3 dON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
' z+ Y: A6 N* ~$ F/ a5 P9 EForward Measurements .................. 171
7 V$ v& B& j0 g: {, fMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
; M; w* u1 R5 X. p4 U. B9 gNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
1 t7 u! W0 W/ g& B# EEndnotes .................................... 179
. m4 t+ k0 O1 B" u5 W! Y% n3 R( k
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
' g6 h9 G5 e0 {Measurement Methods ........................ 182
6 W! m6 J; n7 S+ R' j; N lIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182. L& j: H" B$ r" M0 [
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
% F4 N4 k! A5 N( xModulating the Input ......................... 183
( g4 H' X: r& E% Q3 k$ o% aLine Injector ............................ 184
+ ^' I5 R# n% e/ d6 a- `Current Injector ......................... 188
( F" i* i3 g! `& a- f/ qDC Amplifier ........................... 189
% E; E' W$ _$ b. [! B' `Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 1898 u- T3 H) J; ^( T/ v1 K
VNA .................................. 189
9 C4 Q0 x# G6 d$ P {9 ^Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 1894 M' x) |4 A( E4 r: u! K
Oscilloscope ............................ 1905 S% N) v! _0 X1 y, E
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
+ ?9 J. W* r* `Endnotes .................................... 200- P7 s5 x& r( h6 Q. v
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
3 \1 v4 Y+ C( }Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201 T( Z- j" |6 ?
Series Linear Regulators ................. 2019 i1 c! }$ D' E" ~' f
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201$ ~2 \1 {2 V% z" [: h) C: `2 O9 T
POL Regulators ......................... 203/ h6 O0 W- }( B& g% H) L0 o4 P
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
' K; {6 y3 r% R! F6 dModulating the Output Current ................ 204
+ l9 x, m: u% n5 R& R/ TCurrent Injector ......................... 205
1 w7 j. M l; N0 f! y$ ^: r6 D5 `DC Bias Injector ........................ 2055 f1 I9 F' z0 i) z& p" W: {8 Q0 |
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205
, i; P, h+ b- o9 o( c, K) sCalibrating the Measurement ............. 205. g' S' w. q, X V- m* X7 }% Q
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
6 ?, X0 X+ m4 L+ J' S G1 iCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209: ?- @1 j# d0 a q! H( f" l, v/ D
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209, A) V0 r% m2 V& c# I7 k9 I
Endnotes .................................... 216% v$ N5 C3 L5 {
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217 {" T3 I# p Z" A1 ^! R( w
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
, k* L( Z* l9 }Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
: I$ m: Y! r: xSlew Rate .............................. 219
2 J- `5 M2 i' q% `3 h9 `6 YCurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
& [6 F9 p; A0 _5 x& L! O+ a& a+ B Contents * B- F- f# [ \% J+ |1 L. W% q; h
xi
1 V4 d8 u" e1 d+ gMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
, p/ ?9 E9 A. q Y) Y# `, RLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223. l7 Q; k; `& x0 u" O. P/ N
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
+ G9 v# ~$ A7 v8 @6 PSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
0 X0 P2 [* R( I6 SEndnotes .................................... 232
* Y; }. a5 r/ m! j% e 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233) k. b# x. N' |
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 2346 K- D" X* Y+ M
In or Out of System ..................... 234+ [: o7 x8 s1 Z4 u/ n1 K+ f
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
! d4 ~2 j% |: |: R b0 OTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234
3 `: i& l; v+ L3 ]- AConnecting the Equipment ..................... 2353 A9 l' T+ w$ C' _5 _* o
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235- S' H: @7 D$ i1 j
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
: H+ _$ A2 e0 k& m& qDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
; z- ^- c- F& e! L: NChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2375 I: p+ k( d/ }3 s
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252
, D$ `$ q5 a2 l: ~. X2 ]# Q$ n oEndnotes .................................... 2522 A l: J {) D
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253, B) u7 C+ D# r9 J) G: b v" @
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253" T! p; C/ n. ~; \8 _# s( B4 B w
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
! y1 `( G% K$ ^3 DImpact of Filters and Bandwidth
( {1 i% w( Z1 B4 Y' I0 t2 OLimiting ............................. 257
* Q" p, [7 m: H1 Y# `2 ^Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
8 E. f* ~8 [- _. P1 d) `9 GInterpolation ................................. 264( Y9 ^6 c2 o$ M' p2 T) g
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
( |) F; Y8 N1 ?- V& P, P- Q* d5 l! @Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265% d9 Z( j ^* s% P
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267! r0 z7 \: a% N# F9 {+ s$ i$ I0 d6 N
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
* G( H' Y8 E; y6 rProbes ....................................... 269
8 ]( Y. W) Y* g* ^Endnotes .................................... 273& A6 H) x2 w/ g# i4 p
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275' o% ?6 j1 Q* |0 Z* g7 Q* a
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 2758 c g+ Q, k. R
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 2776 Y8 ] V+ X" c. S, a6 k
Probe and Orientation ......................... 2784 C) _6 S7 h* L) M& Q) w1 y
The Measurement Instrument .................. 2814 N R( R/ }, W' q" m! S, r6 j) X2 X
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281. t) W: x* s) ]
Endnotes .................................... 295
: K3 \1 w$ W4 |) t! E: j 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297) V) ? f1 R! m
Time Domain ................................. 297! g& c# k/ `: }8 J$ v: Q$ X
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 2987 t6 N0 [1 D, Z- m" q$ `) \4 Q
Calibration ................................... 299
. O. V: ^' f0 U6 {, {. u2 `Reference Plane ............................... 3000 V! O9 G% C* H" T' i4 v
xii6 \. l2 a% ~: ?3 ] b
Contents# {3 o. x) g, E5 V9 j2 m
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303' P3 [( v1 n; g( V+ k3 D
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3047 |) _% E6 E$ r. t3 S, r
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
$ M5 y$ r7 Y0 F- lS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
0 A$ D) z; I2 I$ `# a5 VEndnotes .................................... 316# h3 V; s# k5 b# ~: h
Index ....................................... 319 |
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