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contents+ m. g/ d& l* _0 Z$ r8 @ e
; }+ p3 K" Z( r1 \# ~1 Introduction ................................. 1& q- C D1 }% v- K. y
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1. `' @4 n* w( V. _( W
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
+ u, [, C) b8 q4 W& }0 ], ~The General Format of This Book ............... 2
8 N7 P1 w0 |! K6 T- f7 J4 vWhy Measure .......................... 3
0 S/ a6 U9 i q$ _5 }4 MObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
9 \; V3 ^3 e7 d* Y. \. a% dDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5' w+ P8 y1 W5 Y- o7 E) u
Troubleshooting ........................ 5( Y/ k$ u7 i* h4 q" x; k( q+ m
Validation or Verification ................. 72 b# p+ D2 P8 I( {2 a$ g
Terminology ........................... 7
- }( I7 }+ |) C- u! q0 @ 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
+ ^, m1 v, p0 F4 {: T/ MCause No Damage ............................ 111 {+ Y0 e6 W$ u9 n y9 L% u
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
/ A4 W& v/ G2 Y9 E! F, |; lValidate the Test Setup and
, D2 U& g" ]2 C" dMeasurement Limits ........................ 12) X( p. ]! @1 M9 E
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
8 ^% Z$ c% N, u0 UNoninvasive versus Invasive
/ {& [ }5 V& E" e, _/ ?) D9 }8 X: rMeasurement ........................ 14/ ^9 S4 k4 t5 M& Y* D* I
In situ Measurement .................... 141 h7 J& Z& G2 U% X1 J- E" |
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 149 X& U; I5 G+ r/ i
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 152 L$ e" F) y; k( W/ C
The Test Engineer and Contact
( S2 s* J8 q% O2 zInformation .......................... 15
7 [ }8 m( ^: E+ dThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
2 G2 h# I0 R8 d, A$ l& l. ~Simulated or Expected Results if
0 R: v2 u3 _7 L8 VAvailable ............................ 172 @8 D, x! l# x9 x% I5 x+ H& U
The Date and Physical Location
]- |; Z) n" h8 Pof the Testing ........................ 18
4 ?! M3 a1 ]& X+ J" H% y; P# gOperational Test Environment
+ R. \( m) `2 a2 w, g/ {3 H. }and Conditions ....................... 18
+ c) u% \5 s; uThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment : Z; U6 }5 I! J+ I5 Y& L
(Including Probes) and Verification That
5 a( F% U: c3 ? `, n' h. YThey Are Calibrated .................. 18
" }) l9 P5 ?' ?, {% e7 N. RSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
' p3 I4 L2 L$ o+ N8 eMeasurement Annotations and ( P% i) t' {, m* F x4 i
Comments .......................... 20
% N; k. C% W; qAny Observed Anomalies ............... 20$ t) p8 G( N9 l& |' V8 [/ o$ ?, B6 q
; y/ x0 s: f0 C' x' m3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
2 c' z8 k6 ]3 G! bSensitivity ................................... 21
) R! D6 d7 |. O. K8 L$ XNoise Floor .................................. 22
! V2 P' ]5 b: T5 u0 d( aDynamic Range .............................. 22: h6 d/ c' d' _/ O; H6 }: B
Noise Density ................................ 27
) O1 o: Z% w, i1 P$ O8 XSignal Averaging ............................. 31
* Q$ H+ [7 Y6 J. CScaling ...................................... 33" S7 I0 _& S: C
Attenuators .................................. 34
. Z7 g) J, r6 z! N+ U8 w6 a6 t* |Preamplifiers ................................. 35
8 L* E; h) d/ j) [Linear versus Log Display ............... 360 p, S5 L6 ^' r
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
+ ^% R% T K, R2 z. LFrequency Domain ...................... 38
) Q. s6 k, _; n7 iGain and Phase ......................... 38
3 i; p0 u( a, [S-Parameters ........................... 38
) X3 h1 T. z) `! NImpedance ............................. 39
8 v) \4 d4 v1 L: }1 S; ~* aTime Domain ........................... 40
/ Z n; w) ]& ^ P7 R$ WSpectrum Domain ....................... 42
+ y7 q, t( N! Z4 U# PComparing Domains .................... 44
$ s& c) k% c# b5 REndnotes .................................... 46
7 y5 K: ]. c$ ?( b B; P3 @) T 4 Test Instruments ............................. 472 p, G, y+ N% L5 v
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
% N# P! ?/ \/ {7 U( t$ x# SNetwork Analyzers ......................... 476 I2 j/ c! Z8 y- ?6 W
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
* S3 Q( P% n) q% r* y- O2 pAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
: \) U! C6 j/ Y( IOscilloscopes ................................. 50+ ?" _' p$ W6 @- R+ [6 B$ v h; u
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51% e6 g2 U* O1 P- ^9 v, x
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
, S& e4 P, B8 U6 J6 ~# ITektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
) _" @7 r0 t! A' ]+ W4 yTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
( x( u9 I( O9 J2 y1 n& U3 S6 uTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55& v. T( D( g) v
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
9 B: i% u- Z- ?3 R/ F O- gTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
9 H- G" X+ e7 ITektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
9 }8 A# ^! Y( ^4 iOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59( y% r2 }$ P( ?" h+ ] ]
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
3 c& o6 S1 E' u% _+ YTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
) u! W% @# B3 r3 a" KAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
, }# L$ h' k4 E% D! ~; r. m3 IAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61- Y' k* ] [: m8 k9 `
Signal Generators ............................. 62
$ i8 U f5 @+ y0 l7 M0 ?Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
1 P0 v e; M w* m% PTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 637 }5 _- B7 i. i' t: t* `* Y- m0 `- h) X
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63! ^7 e3 T1 f" l5 N# U1 @
! ^5 V8 h( z0 `. E9 V. c
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
) U6 `; m& @2 M5 x0 O: [Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
) g" s x, t5 K, o: x8 m& P$ LAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66+ C& A- r0 d7 Z% i6 W6 |" ^) J
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
1 d1 l7 R8 h" I! y+ |Voltage Probes ................................ 69( {8 J0 h1 N, n8 \
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 705 [7 Z1 v2 A7 K0 ?
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
* E# b, g- d0 HConfirming Measurements ............... 742 z7 n" {+ _/ O
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
5 t0 s2 ?- K& G7 b/ D: OPassive Probes .......................... 77+ l8 f# t' `) `! a* y
Active Probes .......................... 79
/ k4 z" Z6 Y# s; U8 W; EDifferential Probes ...................... 79
4 X) {8 ^; o. e. V+ z @9 j& ^Specialty Probes ........................ 80
0 c" Y5 ` X! R! K7 z, `) WOther Connections ...................... 91
# E# ~. D' G8 m# PEndnotes .................................... 91" h( S' s( n8 u, l+ K6 h/ h. Q
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
1 e8 v" S5 w/ R. K' F0 o8 mNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93 q& U3 p! z( k
Internal Noise .......................... 950 r+ }9 K8 y, I# } p% u& `
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95* S- ~" k" Y& f( _* d( [) {% l4 e
Output Impedance ...................... 99( G& @; ]8 b7 \* K7 h u) W: D
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
. \: r3 `! a$ a$ r) ]3 m; KControl Loop Stability ......................... 101- I& S' {% N! E
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
) f$ f0 X: F& w% R; aImpact on Noise ........................ 102) X6 v* r" Q/ b6 k6 m
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
E( ~5 w% p) p2 i! f- P) GImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103: R1 @. ?* h& k
How Poor Stability Propagates through
, |; R# M# v! V- }, uthe System ................................. 103
0 v+ J- ]; ?/ l/ Y( sAdding the PDNs ....................... 106+ \" t, r' d" i4 z
Endnotes .................................... 108
x* ] }' w- J 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1090 u5 [8 S& }/ g- K3 _4 K
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
; [5 w& l! |$ u* Y0 H8 S" `Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
3 I4 p8 M8 `2 ~" |Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
9 h2 ?0 c6 O( u$ ZCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139, B, ^3 ~/ o: J( ]7 {# l* r
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
8 f: D/ D2 j- REndnotes .................................... 1480 ?8 D- {$ x) b J$ O! Y: ~
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
, b( P& K: X0 ], k$ O2 r1 @* i' I; FStability and Why It Matters .................... 1519 x) U! u" q G3 c- m
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151) @ G( ?, K, Z% A- y# u! A
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
7 C2 G0 ^1 z* ?* E9 X: XMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
$ u$ u/ @& `6 ~6 wBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
+ }5 f0 N' v0 z. ], wx7 S% k0 G: {& D) K9 u8 X; ]
Contents$ x% g/ ]$ G- k( x8 Z
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159" y# W+ i' i+ k8 r
Injection Devices ........................ 161 ` e9 F3 [7 g7 A
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164) `9 D/ A) R9 m$ j6 [
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169$ ~* e: Z; _9 F& V8 P
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170& y& |2 t' k6 T- s
Forward Measurements .................. 171
5 u% Y* |8 s9 S6 u& Q+ w7 y8 {* ZMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
j8 u7 J6 [1 ]- m% @5 X0 l5 jNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
: y5 Y9 q. |+ `, C) yEndnotes .................................... 179
+ [. `# M0 u5 N$ K: L1 G* M# Z$ _* \8 a) I
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
2 w6 ]0 Z4 v, j( [% Q5 t5 PMeasurement Methods ........................ 182/ h" J+ }/ e0 T: t2 F
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182 }+ t. G' T& v- Y8 X
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182% d4 @* `. a. ~5 @
Modulating the Input ......................... 183, e6 b7 _* U; U: O! D- r% W+ B# A
Line Injector ............................ 184* {- {; t, I# c- G& y7 o
Current Injector ......................... 188
- _0 M, c7 ?8 S; N- ~" K: pDC Amplifier ........................... 1894 I# _" g/ K* G2 h) w* I) [/ b( Y
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 1892 h# h& a7 }+ k. L7 w X& f6 J
VNA .................................. 189) O* T0 u7 X; K: r6 A! f% [
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
: }5 i' `' {! m& nOscilloscope ............................ 190' q# B! z5 t! s# {' @* s6 ]; P
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190; S* b4 \6 O! N# n
Endnotes .................................... 200
# |8 c) J; e4 C7 K 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 2018 x+ V# [# F/ Z5 ~( x
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201+ t- O* l4 J: |
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
$ B% W4 Y/ Q; DShunt Regulators ....................... 201
K: \+ |9 U8 gPOL Regulators ......................... 2031 T* l. a: n6 F6 r. W
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204: H4 p6 ?- b/ n, e# f
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204$ b# T- l8 v3 b) x2 g# v; G U
Current Injector ......................... 205
3 [4 F9 z- N7 d3 _3 M0 H( zDC Bias Injector ........................ 205
) q; U4 V* ?1 wMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
0 {: T2 O! x: O; ]Calibrating the Measurement ............. 2051 P* c3 L3 l/ x9 A" k+ ~ d" Z
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
: r0 ]; u- r7 J4 jCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
+ J1 R( A/ u. l! GIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
% ^4 t# s( ^5 h, oEndnotes .................................... 216
5 J$ {8 A: H) z6 u# _' e 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217( A" ]; j7 X% b+ [7 ]
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
4 {6 i9 | s9 h+ E! PCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
# C. h( k4 r4 MSlew Rate .............................. 2193 o6 B3 A1 J; p6 S
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
, h6 ~' U0 G* ` D6 R: I8 O9 X Contents - I/ O: t, i U
xi
/ i4 t3 B( l' e' c, l3 ?4 rMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223; {2 _' i# W* p
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
6 c6 b8 t1 C7 H( p/ INotes about Averaging .................. 224
0 E0 v: K3 h4 |1 [Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
; F4 P: I; V4 @1 {& h9 U9 EEndnotes .................................... 232# V5 Q" H9 a: O, b* ?! ~
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
1 u, b% |5 G* {Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
2 ?: f& _5 d, u3 A6 N) J1 E* sIn or Out of System ..................... 234: M" J! d: E9 t/ v5 ]1 j" V
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234# J7 l) C+ K. m7 }
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
2 f1 w, l" w8 N J HConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235
' c1 q. q% T8 h- p+ WPassive Scope Probes .................... 2353 P1 N, }0 w* d: a1 m8 P! j
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236$ L' D1 {/ s+ P' i. K/ p
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 2366 Y! e+ y/ O3 ~
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3 W Y7 A' `) B6 ZAveraging and Filtering ....................... 2523 @% h! f1 c9 Y2 l& W2 F
Endnotes .................................... 252
' u; U; v+ i8 ] 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
9 t( Q3 n8 J! t& l2 p# ]Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
; J/ @% m$ V/ O! p7 w$ UCascading Rise Times ................... 256
" R' y2 y, H( F8 {7 ]: z: HImpact of Filters and Bandwidth 5 L, a) w, ^/ J
Limiting ............................. 2577 p9 @, Y+ e% Q5 t; J
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
3 g. p- ]3 \/ SInterpolation ................................. 2647 a- L; M9 F K T$ _
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 G8 s# \9 s! E2 V% a4 t2 v! ^
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265; H) L* q) `# a1 @$ d' P; X& S
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267- v7 b2 O( x, i7 u- [
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269& M& P/ R. ^$ R% }" K% G5 f
Probes ....................................... 269" F( K% h) t5 \: f' B2 G" y
Endnotes .................................... 2731 }% k# O8 N, v5 i
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275" x/ B; Z# Z9 g- @% v2 P4 m
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275% {6 I' k" v8 o! o- x
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
& i2 P& {. O4 t. R2 A! HProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
6 r$ G* R$ d' A' @8 p1 GThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281* |0 y; Y0 A$ J5 h8 s
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
( a& J* A8 B1 e* |$ \+ PEndnotes .................................... 295
5 O1 Y5 z# O4 [( Z4 `0 } 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
+ x- f4 @6 j% O, jTime Domain ................................. 297
! k! @0 X" v/ M9 STime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
7 l7 l7 c: B, D0 w' s5 UCalibration ................................... 2998 f* K3 [! ?6 u
Reference Plane ............................... 300
6 W1 v& A) E3 _2 O, ?. Y; {7 o5 x- W0 txii
% ~: j7 K1 Y4 o% n! t Contents
7 y" `( d$ P m( rSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
+ H( I# \% x& y9 G& TInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304# _2 N. z8 _" t
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
9 ~6 a; T ?( J, ?3 r( xS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314( Z o) h; I, |5 R, r1 k
Endnotes .................................... 3165 z/ q) C9 N2 q- P9 C
Index ....................................... 319 |
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