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contents
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& `# q7 A# t5 a3 d1 Introduction ................................. 1
* R$ `. B& J: @: IWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
% Z8 P" }1 _; y, xWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
$ X8 y3 Y8 _6 MThe General Format of This Book ............... 27 G2 U% K- c6 Q
Why Measure .......................... 3
) w5 k4 L6 A4 [- Y: q V4 P& dObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
4 o) U: j8 B9 g+ Z5 P/ Q4 |7 cDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
& @1 D- z- _4 `5 @+ h1 qTroubleshooting ........................ 5
! @. k/ N1 ^8 x4 rValidation or Verification ................. 7: _! w8 x& D7 l! q) N& Z% ~$ F: F
Terminology ........................... 7; i' Z: N& R% D$ e. c
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11. b8 L6 l9 a3 _$ ~# o7 t
Cause No Damage ............................ 115 x" i% Q1 a5 T z @4 G
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
( T4 _$ m/ W. L+ {Validate the Test Setup and : j$ `- Q8 O& l, W& f" e) ^, c
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
# C& c7 f7 K( e ?! z, s7 qMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 141 l6 m6 U' F Q% d
Noninvasive versus Invasive Y' w& u9 X3 g w' P! Q2 U: f B
Measurement ........................ 148 ]( k1 ?5 E# H, A
In situ Measurement .................... 14
* b- o) g5 N p/ v$ o' W& DIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
! ^: E# T+ y0 i- U; U }/ K0 i/ eDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 151 i$ v& h, q3 j. v
The Test Engineer and Contact * p' _+ ]8 T% Y0 l6 v' Y/ i1 s
Information .......................... 15
' E# j5 ^& `; |$ h1 D+ kThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
: K, Q2 s% d; Q* d8 a; YSimulated or Expected Results if 3 m0 _; D" r1 [8 L: f' a$ d6 S( @. D
Available ............................ 17
- F/ I7 a+ j, ?- EThe Date and Physical Location
" z9 l8 z. [+ \6 E8 |; j% ]1 d% Cof the Testing ........................ 18
4 n9 j! r# `9 z3 xOperational Test Environment ! M' S- Q* t2 E4 }: I p
and Conditions ....................... 18( q5 Z" t- S* E, L
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
9 N/ ]- {: k( f5 b+ l' ^(Including Probes) and Verification That
3 J# q% t2 v5 f* _ N. Q* X+ J& tThey Are Calibrated .................. 18! s; i* o! z$ `( h2 J
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 192 y/ ^ _- K7 x( \( x
Measurement Annotations and
3 f! \5 d' U' P( b/ ]7 j9 U- yComments .......................... 201 P! {4 [( R. O
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
, ]& l% x$ v% `6 [" i1 J* ^. F. T% e5 [( S
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
4 A% a8 X" V# ?0 U8 O$ tSensitivity ................................... 215 ?. c" S. N/ k! b! X$ h6 r
Noise Floor .................................. 22% w: _ O+ }) A0 h8 Y" [
Dynamic Range .............................. 225 k/ w' @) \4 R+ D
Noise Density ................................ 27( R$ _( H" b; t$ K
Signal Averaging ............................. 31$ \7 J* q% T2 D0 q( S, v* r
Scaling ...................................... 33# G9 Y8 @, @( G( n+ v( a2 h" N
Attenuators .................................. 34' F2 W. c) c& A- t! l4 P* [0 u. t5 {
Preamplifiers ................................. 355 l5 E' d5 n/ F. c' L6 ~- @
Linear versus Log Display ............... 368 g) h F+ q8 e& ?& W; v# w& l9 ^
Measurement Domains ........................ 389 [( h8 y( O" t I% `$ J) V
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
- K/ [/ i+ P# J: uGain and Phase ......................... 38
( Z5 N$ k# a) m% ~: LS-Parameters ........................... 386 b; T) v5 |9 }) K& |$ b
Impedance ............................. 39
+ V% I2 N6 ]# B$ D: H0 {' ITime Domain ........................... 40; c7 Z; C) o; j% S9 k) \3 X, o
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42, n2 `, R: b) |* i: g/ A4 [2 N! Z
Comparing Domains .................... 44+ J2 t' P2 W0 q% b& g b
Endnotes .................................... 46
9 i# K/ C# L/ d3 u: x" O 4 Test Instruments ............................. 478 X) x& ^% |+ V- `8 e$ T4 v; g
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
, v1 a/ V0 E( B0 W3 _Network Analyzers ......................... 47
$ a3 _+ T6 f% hOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49) ~$ c+ y, y" Y8 F' Q% E
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50! B/ ~9 U' D; s, e8 J9 n F! z! c( p/ C
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
8 f: @+ y+ o$ r4 ZTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
7 p% P6 V; w) h% g8 x! `4 W1 zRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52 V: j( P% h, E% S4 |
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 ~2 P. s2 w s5 {% [' }
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
" B# U3 j( t8 R6 N b+ _- QTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 559 U- w- S! f) H6 G% m5 s
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 561 |- S7 r+ ]) v D. ^9 U
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
9 j! Q1 e5 `* T4 y% J2 N3 z* m& s8 LTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
7 J+ H* q, ^5 P1 \OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59) J$ B! X' r% W% n- ?: P+ r
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59% _; c3 ]- c; [# v1 s
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 596 \. C: t6 Q% s, z
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60, s t7 m$ r8 i( b: _1 H+ C
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
6 c# d8 j: X3 i. O( VSignal Generators ............................. 62
$ V5 x3 O# S+ yAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62: o" [6 O) ^8 @$ i8 A, a3 h) \+ X
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 632 E+ ^6 U$ H! H- E2 r3 Q9 D( m6 {
Picotest G5100A ........................ 635 b, {9 w* _# T9 X
, ~" R m6 ]# v
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
/ N7 g, l; p" ]* O9 s3 xTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
; h0 m$ R% A! I4 H- F/ B* mAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
7 |, j2 X* k0 z2 @ 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
: B% s* L+ I4 wVoltage Probes ................................ 69
$ C9 E0 _3 H k: ?, N! A; kProbe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
1 S- ~" l+ i5 ZFlattening the Probe Response ............ 725 _: O- F' I( S& Z% e. K& {8 _
Confirming Measurements ............... 74; c3 d9 ] E8 S! ]' k9 {
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 754 S- e& d5 J7 i2 j2 W$ n
Passive Probes .......................... 77
" h2 w# W& N/ V4 ZActive Probes .......................... 79
2 ?+ j- v% t; T( f. S# a/ dDifferential Probes ...................... 79
2 k4 i. ~5 j i5 q! f USpecialty Probes ........................ 80% B( J# n5 d8 n3 H! }
Other Connections ...................... 91
- C2 f0 c) F7 m5 REndnotes .................................... 91" v5 \8 ^1 J4 a p- e' y
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
# ]2 n7 X$ v: c/ y1 F( P$ m/ mNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93' p9 ]4 C; H* f7 k2 Z* d/ S, Y/ J
Internal Noise .......................... 95
# L4 v3 ^$ P& G. {% lPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 957 ^- b& E1 W& _ N. v
Output Impedance ...................... 99
7 F0 |* V& } {# N, EReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
% ^, B3 y3 a9 Z" qControl Loop Stability ......................... 1016 o; I+ s) g3 `. z
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
9 `" J9 l9 G* a: a0 N6 b5 uImpact on Noise ........................ 102
! z, P# T. `: ^Impact on PSRR ........................ 102! ^- {$ M/ h1 W o0 s7 `
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
4 L2 @0 ^5 a9 {4 i" GHow Poor Stability Propagates through 7 a# C5 m& B/ `, v7 L! W
the System ................................. 1032 A, O8 b/ j5 B# R L; r" n
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106+ }( v. k7 O- ^4 c- b
Endnotes .................................... 108
" h/ {' ] \6 ~9 `3 ? 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1092 k6 t) R/ ^ h, O# \8 j! v
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 1095 ^5 g9 N: e7 @% R
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
9 h- S( V, g) a1 w8 O8 mTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123; x+ \2 e$ h1 W' l6 Q
Current Injection Measurements .......... 1395 M, F# L6 Y$ @& y9 L, [' h! B2 D
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
, W5 T' [6 {% Z0 D8 K7 rEndnotes .................................... 148
) r R: T1 o9 K) \* Q 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151$ j& q5 c8 S, D4 c. A' t
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151$ A; a4 Y& I! V
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151 t) A' a" | `, S
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay ! @0 h% j c) u/ K: M/ K" ?
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153( M4 j+ T/ b7 V6 p. I
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154" n2 Y2 z4 R+ x, Y
x7 G" h7 {" k+ I" g" E. Q/ p
Contents
4 C' d. k# G) R _9 A6 Q5 ROpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159
( O# H" H0 m" \) X5 F# ~$ ~Injection Devices ........................ 161
v- ~5 ^- [, ^Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
6 f g8 y" p& Q! V- sClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 1692 W: [1 F6 B. C0 U# I
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170; z0 u9 p2 w0 T9 D4 h9 c; q
Forward Measurements .................. 171
$ i% }8 T- r8 o$ R/ `" v, F6 vMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171& w- v. U5 s6 l$ Q* ^
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
( H I0 ]5 _3 |: v, A' g ]Endnotes .................................... 179
7 D; B6 C4 x& w5 Q6 `6 G. r+ f8 n! a2 w0 o8 J# z; u2 p
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
. A7 \7 _' q& l) YMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
' [6 [ A1 n5 a3 o9 y+ cIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182* L# q r' Z7 W. l4 ~! d6 I1 Q! Z
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
5 F' _$ U* U3 e6 B. ?1 `Modulating the Input ......................... 1835 d. O9 G. @* o4 T
Line Injector ............................ 184
0 x8 W* d% j* z" U0 ]Current Injector ......................... 188
1 |2 O6 i9 F5 z5 jDC Amplifier ........................... 1890 d% U( f+ W5 y6 {* R( N' E; i
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
6 g0 `7 @4 x" d+ ~0 ]# ^1 s6 ^VNA .................................. 189
E4 \. v; x' M6 BSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189, {6 J# u+ b: W* Y
Oscilloscope ............................ 1900 g8 c) ~# Z+ U0 ] ~; `; r
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
3 s# s2 b2 D9 }; EEndnotes .................................... 2004 R# n% r' o( l2 s
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
6 V& [, m$ \) b% f ~9 ]Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201+ E; w% g0 c1 h2 S, X' B( J
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
7 M0 k( a- L; g/ G0 [" y9 Y/ ?Shunt Regulators ....................... 201( M! c C5 I. D2 I7 z4 W
POL Regulators ......................... 203
, J. ^9 R5 f1 u, q8 _Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
& I* Q2 j, A3 B h" i# RModulating the Output Current ................ 204
' P' x9 J3 z* s* q; v% t* d: eCurrent Injector ......................... 205
. x! E. A2 W3 R) U; l4 QDC Bias Injector ........................ 205# E5 S# E' O/ q4 X! ~) e+ G/ C
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205
) i# }& U, A: ~2 `( U4 G" [2 GCalibrating the Measurement ............. 205
7 U( [$ F5 O; V8 Y; pMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
1 m6 N! ]' u2 T1 T7 M \Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209) |1 `2 f8 j" m; z) t$ N& C
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209
7 X' Q0 G$ x0 r( j) W- QEndnotes .................................... 216
1 ], l: Q5 h0 l; e! }& Q 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
$ z o' p8 L: N0 k' w# u5 BGenerating the Transient ....................... 217
! Z6 L. W9 E) [: c1 O1 f5 RCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
3 k* I6 a6 n0 W5 ?! \0 }+ fSlew Rate .............................. 219- S7 d, [& a: R4 q' a, y% s* y
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221% ]! V* r/ v# D: T1 q3 K# Y
Contents " Q& S. O; Z6 w* h: ~
xi
% a1 s e, t$ u6 Y4 A% TMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
; U$ C9 o3 }$ p' O3 LLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
( Z- T, c( P( p2 ZNotes about Averaging .................. 2247 R3 h$ @9 M2 A1 @" I# ^
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
. i1 P/ G/ E* g/ O3 F$ VEndnotes .................................... 232# f7 ]0 e$ w+ V
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233) o& i( p* r0 G* a+ X6 t; v
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 2347 y* c. }5 L2 m
In or Out of System ..................... 234
: t, i3 u7 \+ S7 fDirect or Indirect ....................... 2347 ~: L7 E" @; @* D3 [3 c, k
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234) y) X! `0 L& l9 [, o* i5 d6 d! `
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235* a% p+ }( R& \5 o7 Y* v
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
+ X. K0 l! z3 P$ m& r" DActive Scope Probes ..................... 236
; Q9 V1 T: V6 P. ^' [ rDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236& r' i9 _: _; s/ v
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237; L& N8 \4 d/ }. S2 n% P
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252
6 l5 W7 ] Y+ }, e* Y$ q9 @% D0 NEndnotes .................................... 252
/ ]0 e* N; Z5 `; n/ B2 b/ c/ b B 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
4 Z% S6 W/ H7 d1 d5 lRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
4 N# R4 N" h! V. S$ ^6 cCascading Rise Times ................... 2562 t* {( y+ F) a
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth $ _6 d5 r$ P7 s0 r' K
Limiting ............................. 257, x C& ^) v1 p* P
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
. V2 t: Q$ M/ \7 `) R1 LInterpolation ................................. 264
( _' ?6 r) U/ W1 v) DCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265( f( j& e" z' N; v, T
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
& C) ?9 f& e/ p/ RThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267/ Z' Z2 w5 S7 B$ g
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
/ f }0 J$ E" l2 P! eProbes ....................................... 269! \- s3 f( m* J7 l- U
Endnotes .................................... 273% I) y6 _& w& g
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 2751 ~* u6 P. J. r) i
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
( d- Z+ Q. p+ S2 V" V4 e; s8 VThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
+ L, u) h0 }7 cProbe and Orientation ......................... 278" d1 Z; Z( V3 l5 W1 \5 [1 }1 I+ e
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281! U" { w Z8 E0 k: h
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281, B5 {: p5 z% U# C
Endnotes .................................... 295; v C% u# H3 [& h) F
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
* ^) ^# {3 k1 `Time Domain ................................. 2979 I1 P" p) { L0 p8 Y3 g- B7 t4 \! m
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298" V' N: n9 f/ C* ]0 J7 v2 j$ x- r
Calibration ................................... 299
( ^1 r( k6 A& fReference Plane ............................... 300
$ Z4 h( ?0 B) w* w# ^3 ]8 M3 rxii+ |5 s" ~! M4 ], p
Contents8 e# `4 o6 e8 |' f
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
* o! m% X- F5 e( T; U* J9 n: lInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
2 L6 J5 m8 `+ N9 xEstimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
2 n+ |( `( B! n8 B, D0 [- s6 GS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314 F9 |! B! F( T) ]: Q0 H( E
Endnotes .................................... 316$ ?! Z4 h) P+ s6 k$ t( l
Index ....................................... 319 |
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