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contents! j& h% j7 W# X7 W' d. N
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1 Introduction ................................. 1
& b; r; }. o3 B& qWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1; p) ]! _4 b3 b6 ^
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
B* J6 v/ c7 P kThe General Format of This Book ............... 2
7 D% o& e. w8 W t- b( O$ s( PWhy Measure .......................... 3# ?/ ?( B9 {# c1 I3 ?
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 34 z5 I; ?: l* b( f
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 56 z% m0 n0 B7 X7 \
Troubleshooting ........................ 52 Q9 D9 q9 x( g! E( l
Validation or Verification ................. 7. h& z, V$ _" }( g
Terminology ........................... 7
: A1 F* o* G4 C- y) v7 F% D2 Y 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
4 s' \( J+ r; \! zCause No Damage ............................ 11
R2 p8 F$ f k: e; _Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11& ]" K' I7 ^2 p: e- Z
Validate the Test Setup and
/ Y7 m6 _3 ]( \5 mMeasurement Limits ........................ 12, p+ m: w+ X/ Z3 X
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
. O$ n: O) T, h! o) o' c5 hNoninvasive versus Invasive
) G8 v+ P/ |. }6 r. F: xMeasurement ........................ 14
$ p8 @: _$ X8 X& `In situ Measurement .................... 14. ]" Z3 N0 f" n( l/ G4 i- n% D
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
* U u5 O6 g+ G7 e K7 `Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15+ j' U; A6 p! b7 m3 a
The Test Engineer and Contact & u# M: h" [1 P i+ X
Information .......................... 153 r0 R& j7 ^0 d* A' C
The Purpose of the Test .................. 161 N, `" G2 R2 V
Simulated or Expected Results if " D0 Y( `! i% m* y7 c0 h
Available ............................ 17
4 B+ I+ \0 n" g) UThe Date and Physical Location
7 K. D' ^& c( L* ]* a6 eof the Testing ........................ 18
* e; f/ q. g' l# v) {0 L" \Operational Test Environment - u9 o+ _, z" D" n. X( e, ]7 n
and Conditions ....................... 187 c; @6 j- C; Z
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment ! L: O& g% N% r ?/ r# U3 b: |
(Including Probes) and Verification That ( [& M' e4 U: L, D
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
5 d) Q' Z4 n. ] m" ASetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
. k9 J7 T* y4 t7 sMeasurement Annotations and
/ F# ]( T; D7 q+ q X# hComments .......................... 207 I+ v$ ^8 v, e. _6 V4 Q6 E
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20% Z; u/ U0 K$ g) v& q
, B! T$ h& W2 w# o9 E
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
3 ?) A. X% G7 S p8 ASensitivity ................................... 211 i; g$ ^) B4 u1 i, Y1 \
Noise Floor .................................. 22
. K1 n3 W/ r$ t0 `' fDynamic Range .............................. 22+ r# p- [: I* E) y9 B7 q$ p
Noise Density ................................ 27: S4 V+ W8 ^; o9 q9 `
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
* B/ J! j- x4 ]& G0 LScaling ...................................... 33 c) t z! f# w$ Y% V2 f& l3 R7 F1 ]
Attenuators .................................. 34* d$ M0 P4 g9 \6 S8 U
Preamplifiers ................................. 35
( @; Y0 e7 J* b" w4 uLinear versus Log Display ............... 36
b* V( h- m; J3 c1 g GMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
% K& u K8 D5 t( P$ F; j$ LFrequency Domain ...................... 38" b( H+ m: d8 O
Gain and Phase ......................... 38
& C- \4 j: @% L3 C* RS-Parameters ........................... 38% `: f" v2 [7 e6 L& S) B
Impedance ............................. 39
7 J% J# j& H/ s: x" `6 dTime Domain ........................... 402 a/ z- c5 P* ?0 D# o
Spectrum Domain ....................... 429 A9 l# V7 u3 o" [
Comparing Domains .................... 44; p7 ]7 q* w4 F# J+ f0 E6 D! R. m- N
Endnotes .................................... 46, ?0 U) ~8 a! }& B9 O
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
$ f% A6 y( m9 w: U# a$ q- ?( N* g$ sFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector ) C& N5 o5 ? h9 [# u
Network Analyzers ......................... 475 U0 D f ? P. h+ d# s3 D
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
% J! l3 G& @ WAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50 j' Q* x: {) U+ O4 n; E1 W
Oscilloscopes ................................. 509 p1 H) H/ Q4 i% G8 y6 f* N
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51: S' d! A s+ _- h% ^: o8 e
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52: a5 j3 K) \8 o* `- G0 w$ z
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
# x: I9 \) q9 ]/ q$ G- ~Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54* [! P5 S1 d3 w, v1 C$ x6 g
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 557 X2 @( N- O7 X! k0 N4 w L
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 561 a& j# C+ q5 u% t) q6 }# K" N$ P
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 562 P5 @3 B4 [: T) k" k3 J
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 587 }' w% d$ i9 J& x+ V4 _
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
# W$ S Y! H m" R# RSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
! e8 Q6 J1 k A2 |. i, @3 |; A0 aTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59) L: M( a4 z. q0 I$ w! G7 ?5 |
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
, O% h4 l7 n* MAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61/ r+ T) [/ ?# B }- h! j( @ `0 S3 K
Signal Generators ............................. 62! ?, s$ e ?/ n
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
3 d3 `$ r5 f, H9 ?8 ~/ ]5 jTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63- @! U: X6 V9 h1 [6 y
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63% ]* k- v! K b% A( o" `( G
. |! _5 v) @( D. J
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 635 L: u3 F: w- t7 C
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
& A) z* U2 N! u4 A' zAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
6 k- K8 O: y3 L7 D( q' { 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
; U- e* ?2 ]" j2 v+ U% yVoltage Probes ................................ 69, B" W4 l& D; Z! B
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 705 s. l! T( i+ |) p
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72' J( t# L7 p/ b5 u
Confirming Measurements ............... 74# U: Z0 i% C. `! G0 u
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
0 }( c5 P: c; S4 r- H; q7 _. u; `Passive Probes .......................... 77
: n' I4 I; [7 tActive Probes .......................... 795 i0 Q9 J3 ^: @+ N
Differential Probes ...................... 79
" u6 B& y2 P0 y1 f( z0 I: xSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
8 w9 [: a9 d" }Other Connections ...................... 91$ P" a( }( X3 N( n& K, Z2 b: d9 k
Endnotes .................................... 91
! z2 b! z! G# }! C. \1 f 6 The Distributed System ....................... 936 |& [0 a8 b( @
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 936 O2 s+ v' J8 Y" e* @4 O- I
Internal Noise .......................... 95. p, [ R' J0 L8 f s
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 955 X' z# s1 S& ]) n$ I! x: Y- P
Output Impedance ...................... 99
/ i- m. n N' JReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99) m! w, E0 i( a% m2 I' f" I
Control Loop Stability ......................... 1012 W; L# Y; b( Z6 O* t0 L! t& |
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101! w# s8 D; \/ M& n9 o
Impact on Noise ........................ 1023 l+ X) W' J8 t( ]
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102/ Q# ]% D8 L. q' B2 c9 h. W0 M
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 1037 b* Y8 m+ O X; c q! V) l
How Poor Stability Propagates through
. K: Z; P7 e) P+ f% othe System ................................. 103. M5 I; e9 e/ v
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106$ C/ r3 ]* h" Z. |
Endnotes .................................... 108
3 Q8 q- i7 n" g; e' Y6 ^, Z 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109. F* V# q1 y3 j% t; ]4 T
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
7 u" i% W1 w$ q/ m( ~Single-Port Measurements ............... 1090 e$ U/ ^2 {4 ]: b
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123' }$ e; K7 K" L& x% w3 `# \
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139
! r" l+ [& r$ x8 V. N# @3 \9 _Impedance Adapters .................... 142
- J* C- u; M& B, P/ |$ QEndnotes .................................... 1487 Y: O: b3 h* }6 {# G' M/ h m
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
0 i' ]' Q* R3 }" u6 EStability and Why It Matters .................... 151
: X2 F; I; }' }9 ~ E! c+ @- {. GControl Loop Basics ..................... 1512 \) l- m' e# U$ |' z9 v
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
# E \( Q& X. E5 x) X5 g; k; BMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 1538 W. Q1 M# C9 x
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
: F+ J$ A4 V0 D! d( I: vx
' g- z+ g, R. w \ Contents
5 s! {( O: ~# {% H, mOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159( v9 S* D: E+ w$ }: M. f4 ^
Injection Devices ........................ 161! I7 B6 Y# Y' {- G' b3 v" K' z
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
, o: U2 g: O# Y8 V9 C CClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169: [# z" I3 \; s! t
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
5 P7 s$ U% \4 O% B0 z4 l- }3 N0 tForward Measurements .................. 171
0 m( Y- Z! T$ T- [Minor Loop Gain ....................... 1718 j7 H" B- D* \
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174 E+ C, ~9 j8 {3 x7 s
Endnotes .................................... 179
+ `" z% n) E) s2 V" |9 `* \
+ k/ |. F$ K/ k0 d4 @* s9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181# n; b( _" v" i. K7 ~3 I& |
Measurement Methods ........................ 182
# Y& b$ U, K& c2 S- o7 e; eIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 1828 c- T8 m$ P$ k% C# }; x! `3 h& y
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182* `" c3 F j: a' B L
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
3 Y a0 Z& m: e5 k7 ^8 K1 MLine Injector ............................ 184
: X' c$ \2 N# Y" ?Current Injector ......................... 188: z1 k# g" |8 F* s
DC Amplifier ........................... 1893 }1 [, P4 e) A p. m9 {- y& [2 \
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189 g; G) w3 [. O; u1 L1 D
VNA .................................. 189
$ C5 u9 d. \, o0 V2 e( ^Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
' k9 L! p: s, X* y; mOscilloscope ............................ 190
2 z& f& T" j# C& lProbes and Sensitivity ................... 190 }$ i- k3 \2 X- W
Endnotes .................................... 200& l) s) J; _8 C
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
; e8 N( Z6 }* G, I: cReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201 N9 j; M, H5 s" a7 v) A' b# g0 a
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
]7 Y8 l4 \& p) s8 T( [# \Shunt Regulators ....................... 2016 z: h3 b/ b$ O8 W% w1 K; a
POL Regulators ......................... 203
6 ~9 _( g3 M) t8 l3 fOperational Amplifiers .................. 204" A9 l. j( T* b) u
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204
5 c( ?# E8 y" d: x) ]Current Injector ......................... 2059 N& ]- s2 I1 N4 M
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205 q% Y) Z: X- j4 T" t" Q, Y8 T
Measuring the Input Current ................... 2057 r; ]. d h( H2 g) b) X. ~
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 2057 x9 w3 }) _) H+ X$ e ]+ J
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
4 Y( }, ~: ~6 C0 XCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2096 h1 X1 Q/ n+ D
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209- \7 I- [4 c8 }
Endnotes .................................... 2165 p: e% l# V6 h' ~8 ^* X
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
! ?3 k/ r+ ?( s/ P8 YGenerating the Transient ....................... 217. s. H, i% k% H9 a
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217! p& t7 Y( f" }; V% s
Slew Rate .............................. 219' F7 a- ~/ K* ~' U8 i" H
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221: |3 y! K5 s8 M6 a( k
Contents
1 S* s% s. e& b. ]9 H" ^1 o* ~: `xi$ q% {1 C7 _9 E+ g0 F! k
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
/ }2 Y* d* G6 b9 f4 `Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
' E% f2 D, ~5 O% h9 eNotes about Averaging .................. 224( P$ f p9 i8 k1 i" F; J. F+ a
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
4 t& T% U, T: Y6 L4 v+ A1 \Endnotes .................................... 232
7 V1 L0 @1 Q" q$ t) ^3 T0 L 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233- K6 H7 X! l2 ~! \
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 2344 Q3 ~5 \* N' Q* B7 O4 \
In or Out of System ..................... 234% ~, E& N4 }* P' L
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
# x+ F" ?0 k( Y, M: Q8 H' uTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234# b& ~/ }5 M; p% M9 m1 S/ r
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 2352 z7 {! X& _- F- w
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
2 P2 t+ A: T: pActive Scope Probes ..................... 236( T: B- c/ k- ~9 b) ~0 h/ q
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
6 P. D, k8 n6 M$ N9 S7 |4 FChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
( u0 m o! l u7 x5 GAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252
^: v2 d; j1 n+ GEndnotes .................................... 252
o7 G9 C; t" e5 K! q# W+ ] 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
" d9 t% B1 l9 q) K- h7 nRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
9 _7 q" c( F# T- jCascading Rise Times ................... 2561 k/ S2 M& b/ R8 N% }# u1 T, A
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth " {% _3 J$ K5 G2 y* B3 u
Limiting ............................. 2570 h# q# ?, S! s8 m6 M
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
: D! R1 |9 K7 c1 VInterpolation ................................. 264
. ?5 a, d- P$ O$ r5 ~% f DCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265- n6 l2 _. o" x& K! i! h5 o
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265' b5 m! t6 o7 g5 ]
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
7 [ V: H+ J$ F$ i$ \+ L3 w# LPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
- H( r! M5 ?$ i/ Z) i% S+ x- ], v7 AProbes ....................................... 269. i' B) A: T, W8 Q4 t. u
Endnotes .................................... 273$ Z: Z0 i/ m" I6 A) `. D( D6 j9 }; n
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
7 k+ S9 ?. B1 b' l: @( {The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
% `" K2 n) ]$ C& I! TThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 2778 r/ Z% `0 a, D7 ]+ I- W2 I- w% [
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
8 i+ p9 o; x k/ G5 W* V+ wThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
* R3 {$ T0 @+ X5 z6 U7 mSpectrum Gating .............................. 281
7 A0 @4 V# t3 T4 ^* C9 u4 {Endnotes .................................... 295
- c1 L" a" W- ?9 J 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 2978 G* p. Z1 C6 J
Time Domain ................................. 297
) |2 U* _! Q+ F, N2 ?+ NTime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
, K P! v' x! YCalibration ................................... 299$ R* H9 z$ r4 r7 t Z2 W
Reference Plane ............................... 300
' b4 [* ]( D1 pxii( o& }3 p6 E5 @/ b
Contents
2 I* ^4 E' b1 h) _Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
1 S; u9 e1 R) O# V* n% D# pInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3049 b3 i8 d' G1 q) z6 \
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
' f9 o5 u% u6 x& yS-Parameter Measurements .................... 3146 r' \, e* S/ a9 T/ J+ f2 o0 B
Endnotes .................................... 3160 m! R' E# N6 \- M5 d8 O
Index ....................................... 319 |
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