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1 Introduction ................................. 1
' b' J7 M q& GWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 11 P8 I+ p" | G/ V& r2 C
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
, I, |$ |/ Q# m% _/ \: f! l$ N, a" XThe General Format of This Book ............... 21 l& f5 G+ N, ]' G& o4 U$ s7 @
Why Measure .......................... 3
+ I% d( q2 H2 V j3 z" aObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
' u- l e! Y" J$ [8 o+ b, WDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 56 I- ~' s! _7 }% k; D$ C
Troubleshooting ........................ 5$ d% w' H* O+ }' x! b( h" H
Validation or Verification ................. 7
% A; a. ]& L/ G! K7 r ^Terminology ........................... 7
& t, P( b0 V; ^- q5 O4 [; H+ \ 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
5 _4 g8 Q1 I9 H2 d5 w; WCause No Damage ............................ 11. ~- Z/ h: g/ f" W
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 113 K% N$ \* ^8 c2 L! }7 P* o5 v
Validate the Test Setup and
i- t/ c! L' P$ x- [9 p5 o4 UMeasurement Limits ........................ 126 _; D `" N- P! N' _0 G" R- F
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
7 X( j# @$ z3 {9 ?Noninvasive versus Invasive
0 d, \; k: w, ] JMeasurement ........................ 14# L R& {5 S0 R, x; w
In situ Measurement .................... 14
; R4 l& ]+ _: y: h: {Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
( I& J! h: `) `0 sDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 155 T8 u4 D; C5 {) X
The Test Engineer and Contact
, I: U1 v# A% M. OInformation .......................... 15
/ w: X C2 K9 ?! L! aThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16" _; ~$ N# s9 x$ M- u* h1 x2 j% H9 C! ^
Simulated or Expected Results if % s7 h/ R: s. F# F
Available ............................ 17( j _- @9 X( |) o9 O1 O# }
The Date and Physical Location
& `8 o w' K5 m- K5 lof the Testing ........................ 18
0 ^/ O; g. [4 e( ]) _% e' EOperational Test Environment 8 W% i7 b7 l9 i# _. Z$ R& S: {
and Conditions ....................... 18) @9 P" [; F& H( L2 c# ]
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 2 Q5 ^, Y$ @$ d" A* i' t
(Including Probes) and Verification That ! |8 [! ]& Y9 s5 M6 s, j
They Are Calibrated .................. 18- F* T" A& W7 Q9 G8 K
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19! r( P3 X9 i4 v
Measurement Annotations and 9 h; R4 g. |8 r# O$ j- @/ y. L
Comments .......................... 205 }" b( p& Q! q6 w
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20; _* D) e) g d$ r7 x. W# X; H: b) B8 u
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3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21" Y( A$ A. M$ |9 j
Sensitivity ................................... 21
* A) K( H2 j# P8 o1 q. JNoise Floor .................................. 22. v0 i9 E9 D- b6 b# A" R
Dynamic Range .............................. 22* j8 @/ w+ A9 D6 Q2 V8 E* [
Noise Density ................................ 27. g( I+ I5 T$ O$ L
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
" x9 @" b- X/ l4 h; l l8 O# y" X8 UScaling ...................................... 338 e/ I, e- w* w: R
Attenuators .................................. 34
; J. H. W) \3 w' K8 uPreamplifiers ................................. 35
1 D# w% M( [: g& ZLinear versus Log Display ............... 36% r) r- }2 I: U
Measurement Domains ........................ 38& [4 v* u5 M$ B4 g# c% I( M
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
; W2 ], G; T% T0 i; `, k" K" nGain and Phase ......................... 386 ]$ V, R! Q# t
S-Parameters ........................... 38; r8 p6 g7 E3 M+ c. A: t5 z( o
Impedance ............................. 390 M v5 I9 f8 l' T' \5 q6 p
Time Domain ........................... 40
O2 T; r/ G9 U9 r% h# O8 ] cSpectrum Domain ....................... 42: J! c; N# n/ x7 h, p1 B
Comparing Domains .................... 44- d, @2 G7 Q. u
Endnotes .................................... 46
) D. [2 x, H) \ 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
9 t6 Q5 T2 D# A5 l( y. J5 m. uFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector
7 H. e( W) f* K: ]4 r/ RNetwork Analyzers ......................... 47
, Z9 r3 w4 Q4 @8 n! [4 KOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
& ^* N, _+ \2 ]- R, R3 RAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50/ A. R$ n \9 y- G7 I
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
, |( U) ^" ~/ J! W- @Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
' P. o7 g9 w: B$ K0 r5 G6 vRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
8 v$ H- ~) E! PTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
+ O# Z2 g2 M9 P& `, a3 LTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54+ ?" H( |) g3 P# `; _
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55- J- A/ c4 C3 Q1 X* M T1 f$ m3 w3 N
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
; Z/ I ?% {0 K8 O8 j( j' ]3 d6 X. [Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 566 Q, z4 t- q1 C5 M6 `6 |
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58# r0 x# c5 u# m: k9 P
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
8 P) j4 {) K X5 rSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
* y7 d5 r$ J8 V) n$ K! Y2 NTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
$ ] g' ~, L. n8 A' SAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
1 X% x L8 ]: p, U* ?# aAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61# B2 J# Q* k% `! V) I r
Signal Generators ............................. 62$ O7 s. U+ i6 v: ?+ K0 s; J
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
- w1 }" d! r4 J. a4 O2 eTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 636 h4 L$ m' D! K9 X* [( ?+ A* D3 }
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63
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Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63( o( j0 ]: Q1 a. ]5 x: H
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
) p4 B, M, k+ V1 M2 i F/ f( o1 e; jAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
5 G7 ?' w8 F" F" ~ 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69# y, k# D# R/ P& B7 p
Voltage Probes ................................ 698 Z' L' L r# r( A8 }$ ~3 g$ W' R' B
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
/ f9 _! r1 ~( U: P& ?! zFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72 @- w: @5 w5 s) [/ L. D `
Confirming Measurements ............... 74* }+ ?$ I1 C3 J
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75! n8 U: @. C7 ^) S+ V' L3 C
Passive Probes .......................... 77
, ^8 U/ U# _5 W" H8 y2 pActive Probes .......................... 79+ B! L* j6 V/ M+ I+ Q5 a# Q" A
Differential Probes ...................... 79
{: A" M" c( b7 b6 c* R: j5 E2 BSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
. [1 c$ Y6 f/ b: MOther Connections ...................... 91
2 D# t s+ n+ \" A kEndnotes .................................... 91
u4 R, _' f5 c/ @9 n4 a7 v 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
J/ ^$ V# e' l) j2 s8 Z7 lNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
3 e- l3 Q; ~' M d/ Q5 F, |Internal Noise .......................... 95
4 u, [- V+ s; t7 zPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
" C" r5 T1 W5 J8 m' SOutput Impedance ...................... 99* [) m" h0 C7 q& h: P. _4 a
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99) w; `+ w$ l# p
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
# a Z, f' l% r5 S7 I9 MImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101
" v6 c- r* g6 ~* A7 ?( r" rImpact on Noise ........................ 102
- @0 k3 P8 o$ Q# X% ?- j+ jImpact on PSRR ........................ 102, K+ B- j1 m1 R+ B( Z; j
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
) z; w: O% m T+ J8 O6 bHow Poor Stability Propagates through 5 M* j5 V Q1 ]5 N
the System ................................. 103/ M& |% R6 {. g: A, B6 i! b
Adding the PDNs ....................... 1066 B' g# N5 Y' G4 t
Endnotes .................................... 108# u: D4 e1 l9 K! M7 y
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
" A1 E) j9 l* k8 N0 q4 ?2 QSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
5 W# I- X, x3 g3 b6 r8 X5 SSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109
- H4 U! r( K8 N$ xTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123
# D. D7 ~, F! kCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139
" H P m2 E+ V1 c2 n9 d3 \Impedance Adapters .................... 142& ~# e1 r) P8 c( o
Endnotes .................................... 148* M" V% i, U+ j; J
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 1519 X, v; p+ q6 ~5 w* p3 `
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151 d6 r# N/ E& M9 L
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
% G3 ]3 s3 z5 k; \2 w% ~Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay & J7 h" F; I6 ^' ]7 q9 A
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
0 R6 K9 u% i; k/ ?$ sBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
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Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
7 S0 ~2 E% B% M4 O0 [. Q# hInjection Devices ........................ 1613 A9 O) D, [: L3 E+ D J, _ ^
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
# L* y- _: p4 iClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
( H% L5 K" b3 I% L/ MON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
2 x7 q: y Q' t( SForward Measurements .................. 171+ _. U! W6 l$ ]( h
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
/ |8 @5 o, p! ^( }) f0 ~Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 1742 q; }$ v6 T! H# z$ T
Endnotes .................................... 179$ B- S# T# Z, X! @5 N; B
- U5 T; u1 Z. k; X5 F& m7 O9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
+ U% h: o; @0 tMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
1 L; h# e! k& v0 H z0 k5 [6 p0 b' Q6 RIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
}' {0 p( i1 JDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182% R8 K' O5 w5 Z: M
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
9 z5 s9 D9 k1 Y( R( TLine Injector ............................ 184( K, o) K# o4 `4 @ ~+ Y7 t5 M, ^
Current Injector ......................... 1880 Z! W* o$ @& s1 z1 E
DC Amplifier ........................... 189
5 G4 Y$ u, p2 n5 t2 w6 J# pChoosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
; `: ?6 n5 q' m2 L/ e7 t1 qVNA .................................. 1896 d4 s) F2 [0 j3 y5 ^9 u
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
/ C# I. d0 |4 oOscilloscope ............................ 190 N3 w& ~6 Z* z& }3 {
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190& q) h* \4 d+ l/ F) d+ u
Endnotes .................................... 2001 k5 n" S) D" t6 M" o
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 2016 `6 R* a% r, T+ Y8 `) o/ f
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
/ u( V2 c/ i3 T5 h! A5 SSeries Linear Regulators ................. 201# K0 }+ d5 |3 k: s" @$ d: v
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
9 t1 q; t) ?4 O5 D y4 g. U5 MPOL Regulators ......................... 203
$ x& i: c6 [+ G/ z% AOperational Amplifiers .................. 204
9 s3 D9 D$ W3 p6 rModulating the Output Current ................ 204
; z8 ^$ C. i# E9 B# B, d+ C2 FCurrent Injector ......................... 205
- P) W: z7 w5 F+ w* {DC Bias Injector ........................ 205
. T: M% ^% e/ n& T0 r OMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205: b$ o+ D; R" f7 P5 f/ S+ L4 G* m, Z
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
+ x- m) v8 Z# b, y! {* ^7 @Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
. t6 q( ]' B/ ^; [& f! r- qCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
# d1 f% y2 ]+ VIndirect Measurement ......................... 209* i; z# { X- q9 t/ M+ D
Endnotes .................................... 216# J( e/ ^) M0 a2 h/ d
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2171 g. e2 E( B2 s/ @
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
1 p' g* N' W- C* e$ v; H. ~Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 2178 F$ x) e9 S: @% `$ u/ D1 D
Slew Rate .............................. 219' m" _/ w' i" ?- Z
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221/ v/ k9 x' f# G V, B' x( S
Contents ( ?% \9 g$ ~) H _' n
xi
; b4 d F; J* u2 |& d8 kMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
% `4 }$ t# u. k* GLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
# |2 X- E8 a+ t7 _3 V- D1 pNotes about Averaging .................. 224( @, u+ W7 ]- _9 U* ?
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
4 H+ b1 V) q B3 _% V% F2 \Endnotes .................................... 232
C, [/ k5 P/ A4 L+ o* S& K 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
0 L1 \* }9 { Q4 ~( v* t7 VSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
" M& Z: R- ]6 {/ M( e, rIn or Out of System ..................... 234% Z/ G L" G/ z- Z. o" K5 B3 C
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
" W9 L: B5 @2 O5 S9 |' PTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234
6 m/ d3 J5 Z) v# q3 c5 V& p: JConnecting the Equipment ..................... 235) E K+ L# j$ L4 O6 S, s
Passive Scope Probes .................... 2350 k# I) I0 I+ s3 ^& a
Active Scope Probes ..................... 2361 V9 i' c- z( O) v0 n( s6 i
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236 n' o# y4 m$ q/ g) [- G
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7 |# M7 y3 g+ q A3 _5 b; J [8 fAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252. b6 e1 K' W! ` o$ S
Endnotes .................................... 252
7 w7 j. S3 {6 v& a% z1 b% c 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
( @( u" V7 f0 [7 }; }2 ERelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
2 D$ F% o. U6 ^% {5 j" ~Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
1 Z# Z8 N9 j. r' fImpact of Filters and Bandwidth % w% o; ^" p E6 P. q* p8 X
Limiting ............................. 2574 v7 }0 a9 Y. f# o5 q6 n. p2 C
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 2616 k) n5 w* Y/ L0 p
Interpolation ................................. 264
0 s9 ^' _4 I8 z1 `! ECoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265- w% H# @- d& U
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 2654 ^8 n5 ^7 w( s! R: h' A# c3 D; H
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
* s9 Z2 A' }- X/ kPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
; F9 j! o: |' i& u0 _$ u8 p7 GProbes ....................................... 269, a2 _( }! l0 N) p9 R
Endnotes .................................... 2736 w1 L6 J. p2 W4 v: c: N Y
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
V0 u- J) c& R$ g2 `% oThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275 A( Q3 \* ]5 _
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
, _7 X6 X& S1 DProbe and Orientation ......................... 278' |' x5 x' ^; s* o( T0 t
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281" {) E+ B$ S+ q
Spectrum Gating .............................. 2814 W" d! o( v: r9 T% e, F' `
Endnotes .................................... 2956 |) P: J' _: A7 B+ Z" l% F
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 2973 e8 X. z0 |" r4 }
Time Domain ................................. 297( X! o; u* x( I0 k
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298; T# U" Z1 R, \# R
Calibration ................................... 299. a2 f+ L# g4 i# W8 e) p
Reference Plane ............................... 300
& i! U: |. O( `; U1 t2 ixii
, @8 ?$ I: o, @ o% _1 H: c Contents4 f) {2 k: g, F/ o, D- }
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 3033 G0 Y1 g9 l8 i: c
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304( {6 P2 W9 F! X7 m0 K3 X
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
1 t N, D8 z5 T! D8 n" k& X# bS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
) C5 T& j8 h: c: vEndnotes .................................... 316
+ e* G. B" x' k Index ....................................... 319 |
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