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contents
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9 ?" n+ A4 z/ D3 z7 o$ h) S1 Introduction ................................. 1
7 a/ @, x# l6 f. g* c' S1 X5 k7 ]0 ~What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
+ d5 S6 n5 S5 Z$ O- x1 }Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
7 A9 P6 L9 n( p- ~2 n3 oThe General Format of This Book ............... 2& g: C3 f0 z9 [6 m
Why Measure .......................... 3. I7 P' C( r! }) @ C
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3# s/ U( r& Y* Y1 x& N
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
- u6 |* g; s9 QTroubleshooting ........................ 5) s9 w6 r4 K5 D0 j
Validation or Verification ................. 7
$ ], H. B+ _6 P/ O9 x2 NTerminology ........................... 75 N! j( D: R2 Z. o! {, R. B
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
& B! d0 y, d) rCause No Damage ............................ 11; V; w9 A, |# |4 b" J" A$ ]
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
! |& O! F1 r* w/ G& y( \, g4 KValidate the Test Setup and * ]9 ?, e9 a# [
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
+ ?2 n: z" \8 kMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
" Y" ?! p# m2 j8 B4 u) _( ^$ N$ DNoninvasive versus Invasive
1 y& V! x% O& ?0 b' o( d7 ]Measurement ........................ 14
5 b' m; c; H! @4 F: t4 n( T: PIn situ Measurement .................... 14
5 A% z! V8 v( K8 I$ Z( ^# EIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14! {6 b9 D5 X, Z% U# B
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 155 N: V+ M1 Z/ ~* v# X( O
The Test Engineer and Contact ; b3 B+ Q7 j' X5 u1 o# O" h9 Y; Q/ l
Information .......................... 15! Z7 I$ m7 ^, y3 R
The Purpose of the Test .................. 16( \- f: z1 a* r. {0 j
Simulated or Expected Results if 9 B7 Y" {3 @6 z$ p$ b
Available ............................ 17
. T8 o/ m4 j( w. m1 }+ e! Z3 AThe Date and Physical Location
& M$ j+ l* |/ z( ]of the Testing ........................ 18
( z8 ]- ~/ J0 aOperational Test Environment . r0 x; M; l8 u: }1 j9 s* W! i
and Conditions ....................... 18# \- |$ y7 Y F! ]- q
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 8 P4 o+ U: N* W+ `1 H: }
(Including Probes) and Verification That : G- H5 F! f1 B8 ?6 W' U9 h
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
) r+ y$ h/ L. `7 FSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
M U" ^. ^$ n: I# ]9 BMeasurement Annotations and 5 E5 G' y+ t. R& ]
Comments .......................... 20$ R: l6 g! h$ w# g1 y7 t
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
& A/ T* o; h3 K9 A- [* o0 }; Z7 y9 F) @, u
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
( k' [' F7 h, `8 d5 r' TSensitivity ................................... 21
& t" a; i' ~1 [+ \. R7 NNoise Floor .................................. 22; M1 h0 d* w( }& P6 q, ]% W$ [
Dynamic Range .............................. 22) U2 i& C+ b0 ^: @3 Y8 |
Noise Density ................................ 27
9 `0 j0 J8 }( a) u/ r8 Z5 N+ L; lSignal Averaging ............................. 31
, D6 S' ~4 V3 Y7 tScaling ...................................... 33
) t5 k2 x3 W- ?/ R8 RAttenuators .................................. 34; u" ]: d$ J9 m) f. q9 S
Preamplifiers ................................. 35+ A1 d+ l. j4 S
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
7 O4 f. `& q1 t } U3 v2 O/ L5 q/ L$ UMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
; V$ p) ^- Z \) [! w; f% D ZFrequency Domain ...................... 38
: m1 k/ R, H6 _6 qGain and Phase ......................... 38
3 s5 A* ]0 q) ~: R K: B5 F. ~- l6 b. |S-Parameters ........................... 38; j) E y4 A/ [1 b; \( j7 y
Impedance ............................. 39
5 W+ k$ _& q7 }2 XTime Domain ........................... 40. x8 A( X0 i% f' B9 c
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42& g9 I8 F- N M4 V" f4 y
Comparing Domains .................... 44
) C3 h8 J2 ~+ S8 k3 qEndnotes .................................... 46% g' g; u1 q8 x9 D! z
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47- M. r% |# l5 C- g$ a' L8 `3 \
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
6 }9 m0 U0 B/ o$ c+ {Network Analyzers ......................... 471 M# k( @5 R6 r6 G
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49! }! m1 t$ k" U( F' ?* ^+ m: t P
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 502 k& v; ]) [# ^, e" s
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50* c, U" q* b9 c2 T! ?
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
4 Z2 v4 E6 a) q! [1 f% p$ T0 YRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52; V% q4 A& I9 i2 p6 g3 Y
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 ?0 H1 l$ ~8 @2 S( O4 I1 Y5 MTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
+ K0 |0 \$ |$ q% r* d' C) STeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
6 r. j, k0 _2 O' {! lTektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
) ^2 N* W1 P: J8 e* H( |Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56, J# k7 z) E0 e& h- {5 Z
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58, \* |0 I/ s/ K) E
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59- Z* [' _/ \; ^: M1 r- W
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
) b/ Q7 u3 g+ VTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59" ~9 f- `7 c, |
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60. v( N% r B0 k. n+ c7 I) k
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
0 u/ z6 |6 C% u+ N/ }+ i! QSignal Generators ............................. 62; G5 J7 J: p' O( K2 b% i) t
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 629 _5 o$ z2 F, H/ M3 y; s/ B
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63; Y3 O+ J2 \& ~# v
Picotest G5100A ........................ 639 @! ^; _9 N+ D$ o
8 V, ^( P7 [* k' hTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
- q& }4 E* G5 n# o) B/ STeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
8 t1 v" O$ ^9 v: e% [3 L8 KAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
" F1 o4 _! n8 H- F! Z- R 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69/ ?, @! \: e/ U
Voltage Probes ................................ 69$ H; N W1 p! L3 H! l$ g
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70% j9 _; d. e6 ~
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
: \; Z0 B1 G9 h$ h: N6 FConfirming Measurements ............... 744 f& z ^/ A4 p# o+ S
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
: l7 s& Z3 S H6 tPassive Probes .......................... 77
* ~$ z0 V3 o0 `' p3 lActive Probes .......................... 79
- c' ~4 w2 D' s- ~5 L' j4 ?Differential Probes ...................... 796 e2 t, x E% X! G% g5 p' a! l0 Z0 ^
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
2 A) e& i& F U9 z- M2 v6 n- MOther Connections ...................... 917 \& T$ O# h$ q6 Q
Endnotes .................................... 91
1 P9 p9 K h- _/ Q) i5 A 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
) L' b; n+ L+ A% q; g. l3 xNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 931 J O8 O' R5 y: e0 F2 o
Internal Noise .......................... 95! L4 E h* F: L# Q, d- H% W1 b
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95" I# J. ?2 C4 ^0 J2 \
Output Impedance ...................... 99% @, @ c) D$ p9 q" j* h! H( I
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
+ w$ Z- }) Q2 Z. E7 q7 TControl Loop Stability ......................... 101# k; v1 l) w4 b8 {$ e5 K# w
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
1 l& w% m; c3 G2 p: e5 }Impact on Noise ........................ 102
" I0 i2 b# M# A: ` AImpact on PSRR ........................ 102
7 _: t) t2 D9 [2 |Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
8 S* j' q( {: @* Z. u6 ~2 bHow Poor Stability Propagates through
6 x4 Y2 \" Z* f! q2 E' {8 w) sthe System ................................. 103
0 O' @6 l/ s+ |* I0 k0 nAdding the PDNs ....................... 106: q. W$ ]9 ]' R$ x
Endnotes .................................... 108
' s5 f) }- ^3 j3 c 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1094 z+ X \% [6 \7 C5 }
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
9 [, l& b: _. w" c$ W1 mSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109# B, j$ r/ e4 D/ y0 F" `4 `5 ^
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
" @# l) f; E* UCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139
" q7 {# j/ t* a( w/ q" ?. P" sImpedance Adapters .................... 142
7 |+ S4 h: S6 @' eEndnotes .................................... 148
3 }2 C3 d" D# M0 y4 J 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 1517 ]- f; ~- X7 w- _& P
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151
9 I& |, W0 L$ B( YControl Loop Basics ..................... 151
, ?. i/ Y# R! ? iGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay ; L. @) y/ w0 c& l" ]/ t
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153' H( w) S% z2 {" F8 e% e3 m
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 1549 z* ?. {/ |) [+ Y
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5 V- I2 W u. _# t: ~/ i Contents
4 K n% S' x7 T8 z5 O9 z, gOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159
~: Q) I' v2 W* I4 y) g/ L* NInjection Devices ........................ 161
! z0 h* \( A9 |3 l- p6 fSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
! G' {! A" a1 d' u) F" G5 fClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169+ T# g# J" K% A! K) Y/ C7 ?1 `5 D
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 1709 F( g1 s+ T& c! h, q
Forward Measurements .................. 1714 J! B; t& `5 R7 V' _6 |
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171% ~$ }' U$ _6 W1 l
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
% Q. j/ U! C: z( Q7 g1 Z& UEndnotes .................................... 179
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9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
- _$ Q9 O7 E. o$ CMeasurement Methods ........................ 182# t' G; M! y( f# a
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182& y5 ]2 U4 j8 B4 W) k U% m
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182$ w' { Y: {0 L! k$ t( W
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
+ x- F4 ?$ c3 V' ZLine Injector ............................ 184
& n# F& C% K* j+ o1 Q* k6 OCurrent Injector ......................... 188
2 n1 W T' [9 ^0 ]3 lDC Amplifier ........................... 1897 T% T4 T4 q- Y3 ~" Z
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 1892 \8 v: ?# V1 t7 f
VNA .................................. 1896 \3 E8 c0 B7 a5 G
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
% [6 k3 Q7 V( c! l6 NOscilloscope ............................ 190- a8 d7 T u9 X h0 N4 ]
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190! {$ X9 X' {7 |; v
Endnotes .................................... 2003 \3 B; [3 x0 C
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
6 a3 Q& W" l5 x- [* {Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
$ J7 M, y: P3 J; Q7 \3 D4 pSeries Linear Regulators ................. 201/ U& @# |- p. @) t
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201+ P# K. x1 Y" `8 t5 r: n
POL Regulators ......................... 203& ]; Z+ o6 A3 J' w4 z% b7 a: h
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
0 K1 A6 \4 m' j7 d3 E$ H7 aModulating the Output Current ................ 204
& X# d1 H( g# q. J8 t. [ H6 hCurrent Injector ......................... 205
" J+ h7 w4 x1 P7 n+ |DC Bias Injector ........................ 2058 i% K4 i: C3 Y8 i/ X
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205# i5 |4 y0 U& O" W2 k" M, K
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205' s- n4 |. s2 ?+ @
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
- P3 K! Q! E: I% y- S5 C3 ZCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
: H# y2 B9 Z. aIndirect Measurement ......................... 2094 w! N' ^$ S2 @+ O" K, n* r3 \9 \
Endnotes .................................... 216
% \* u$ J8 O" {3 n8 Y 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2171 i* o4 T) H4 `) @9 P, e% u0 l
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
/ K5 h/ `" P% P( k- e$ U* M' O) MCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
% y7 r( c2 H" ?* QSlew Rate .............................. 2195 f, @7 b0 C, A; B
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221) ^: I0 B8 m& v" u7 E
Contents - r `; O/ q2 y8 e8 m; s5 Y, Y
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[5 Z4 Z7 P; ~7 q0 y) ~( `. B; n2 uMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 2230 @" w: j8 N/ m1 \3 E
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 2234 L j3 r8 ]$ C: o
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
7 G% b$ k6 [) V( {* L# u% X- LSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
7 h: B7 T, c" ]$ u& ?) [- VEndnotes .................................... 232
) I1 |$ s0 [2 E! f- [ 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
* l; \1 Q; v2 a, p0 Q% d; n% {7 M* QSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234 O" e! ^0 o2 v' r% @
In or Out of System ..................... 2343 G$ A5 R' x' s# S+ S5 V( |
Direct or Indirect ....................... 2340 t3 u2 D5 C. ^1 U
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 2345 o1 V J2 l D! C
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235
9 V3 }6 D/ |# o' W' jPassive Scope Probes .................... 2352 [; `( M) {# S0 C4 `. u" f
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
. B* ^5 z* h/ ~2 A- W: LDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 2365 {& C$ c$ Q5 K8 Z
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2374 b& l9 R( L9 k" |
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252
3 P2 g, f( y' b+ p' NEndnotes .................................... 252
1 q# M4 {3 k& h. k7 |8 k 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
; L" p' l5 z; T* ERelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 2530 o1 B7 W: _6 I1 r6 h) a: E* _
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
7 g. ?% ]+ d L. Z: `9 E' pImpact of Filters and Bandwidth 4 H {& e, K2 r+ c
Limiting ............................. 2579 z, @ g. I, }3 Z w$ w
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
9 [- p/ Q! w, O& v J9 B4 f/ b6 t+ sInterpolation ................................. 264/ ^% t+ a6 W" j: @3 H( n
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265# Y1 ]$ M. b2 A
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265" Q9 V e1 d- g) n7 d9 R5 t. ~( M& n! k: o
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
: g" w4 v7 x; x, F' ^7 u9 [1 Y ^! e+ GPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269& }0 e/ G3 f+ i7 W" D
Probes ....................................... 269
/ l* G/ x( w' t0 gEndnotes .................................... 273
: W( R5 s# S$ i7 K 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
, R& w8 L+ ?+ ?0 kThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
# w% S. x( q% K6 D: ~ J3 G2 ]The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
1 r2 a4 h5 a3 U6 i& N7 EProbe and Orientation ......................... 278* x+ m( M! S+ t9 A( z b6 n
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281
+ A9 B+ V9 G6 v R. s0 M( z" ZSpectrum Gating .............................. 2819 Z. P' p! z$ I8 t6 }9 c+ _# q
Endnotes .................................... 295
4 @; h+ H9 j3 [) n' i 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297) a9 H8 Q/ `% x0 \/ d
Time Domain ................................. 297& ^, U7 y* S6 V) c6 K
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
T2 K( P u6 f" J; Y# QCalibration ................................... 299
# O) S' g, k; N% KReference Plane ............................... 3000 b1 v8 |% v: P& `( d
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! y' N) O e0 p5 d. Y! B; V Contents# _. N- \1 O! k# F5 \
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
r) D3 \+ N/ ~* k2 IInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304/ S2 i6 s) X% M' k
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
5 z& L8 w3 U1 d' g/ X4 ~S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314# R9 j* I0 D% B; L0 V# J
Endnotes .................................... 316/ `# M( _1 i) R3 c4 Q8 U# G
Index ....................................... 319 |
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