|
contents' d* j! ]9 b( Z( d6 t& R1 x, C
6 f2 ?7 g$ Q. @' m" i1 Introduction ................................. 1$ a& e. u( s# e4 }) B, ~ `
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1* t! H0 z. B7 b7 A/ q, {
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2) D. t1 F3 w5 ]% w5 ^5 }, x4 z
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
5 }/ ^6 _3 v2 K/ {Why Measure .......................... 3; L0 O' C7 [/ q( F V* G
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3) D, x7 O0 z4 F- S. L/ W4 g
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
" p% _* D3 @* Z, F3 c; jTroubleshooting ........................ 5& w! D- u. r2 r L0 K& J
Validation or Verification ................. 7
8 y* e3 `# Q7 R) F; S0 _. n. p% gTerminology ........................... 7& a9 Z/ h K9 Y1 ]! O, [
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11+ @, V* d: b0 t3 w
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
) i+ z' d( i& j& t! e5 M; ~# BMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11: V$ y" j' M" J/ }' _2 |$ D* Y2 b
Validate the Test Setup and % \+ z6 r9 L# M
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
+ i$ ?; A8 T. Q( K9 TMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
' b) ~, J9 t9 q0 `Noninvasive versus Invasive
4 G* m4 H9 }) tMeasurement ........................ 14
4 W; S/ F5 p6 ?" \! _In situ Measurement .................... 14
; p; f! R. I, R7 LIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14" `" `4 W2 ^1 L7 o( r' q( T2 o& T
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
3 |* a6 j* p8 G/ xThe Test Engineer and Contact
' r: w. Z* X) E: V: I! k. uInformation .......................... 159 |- X- ^ C' D* M6 J2 v
The Purpose of the Test .................. 167 I2 k9 M) p3 X0 Z. n j- x
Simulated or Expected Results if / B' R* G! P1 |3 l- ?/ Q! Z6 p" ]5 }
Available ............................ 17& n8 W. X3 g1 M3 A2 v2 ?! T
The Date and Physical Location
/ ?1 U! K' G! {. D) T; \of the Testing ........................ 18
1 H' C1 F9 T" R. { f6 b8 a' B+ tOperational Test Environment + f3 V1 Y; V: k
and Conditions ....................... 18
2 x' N. {: a. ^- v) z0 DThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
( ?3 X/ ?& f& v" {" k& c/ S8 W(Including Probes) and Verification That 2 [0 C Z8 O- K5 p" b) _
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
7 f* {- |/ {: JSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
3 c U6 z' U: `6 ]3 U& ?7 _( ?Measurement Annotations and 8 S2 E+ U6 @7 R3 G
Comments .......................... 20
% S; L3 z5 f5 h- q+ |Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
* t) _5 i& ^7 Z# d" P
s* @$ n, B! }5 e( Q/ [* T3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21+ D# i$ F! r) A- i
Sensitivity ................................... 21
5 ?' @% @+ ]( l1 QNoise Floor .................................. 221 y7 q9 H5 X8 \' ~1 y0 c- N6 C8 Y
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
0 p# y# O" T9 }2 _0 yNoise Density ................................ 27
3 A; g# j" X7 b0 y) `Signal Averaging ............................. 31 ?/ M1 S& \, [$ Q" p7 s$ l
Scaling ...................................... 33
+ Y- ?0 y& E+ t0 G- d# I! p8 VAttenuators .................................. 34
6 @& H5 |; k, U0 q& `& FPreamplifiers ................................. 35$ [) x ^3 q/ n& _; @6 R/ S
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
4 `7 a4 {* d# F9 sMeasurement Domains ........................ 38( N, ?# q3 m* m6 T/ r4 r1 n. h8 f. `0 o
Frequency Domain ...................... 383 o7 w. d `/ Z: f# ~ |: t
Gain and Phase ......................... 38% t: t1 M, j7 k
S-Parameters ........................... 38: W2 v* c- f: d# \' j
Impedance ............................. 39 q0 R" p; \. X2 d( w
Time Domain ........................... 40# T4 U5 T# o* H- n8 W
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42
) e1 ]% k. z) m# I" EComparing Domains .................... 44 c" o5 K- v2 N4 B d6 i" O
Endnotes .................................... 46% u9 |1 \! ^( n* `
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
( B( T ^: W- A9 ^& S% x2 k9 \Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector 5 D$ w; I" [# i" z. C' R- G
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
2 p3 F. b% i' M0 [0 O- bOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49* {: ] b( a& @8 m6 n) v, N! D
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50 i# _3 }! r9 D* Z0 Z0 Y/ E
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
' I ]) {/ M9 F/ JTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 511 |6 P/ ~+ v& E9 S" Z+ }8 G: Q( k
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52- D* O8 `4 V5 T" V" R/ h- S
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2 D! |/ M1 m) d% gTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
0 q" V1 o9 b" S' d8 ZTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55) W( l. t) |# `* @
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 565 C3 Y6 H. f$ L/ D
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
3 m" e& r! ~; B& w$ JTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
9 t+ `" y/ g7 sOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
( k$ p( G$ x5 \6 `+ t" O2 \! Y8 DSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 599 y; s( m. R2 E) y& ?
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
# d0 D; W" s1 H; q7 L" ]Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 601 }* S2 { [) N; p2 l R/ {) B
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
7 ~! j7 X4 Q. p$ SSignal Generators ............................. 62
$ n& D8 F5 Q8 `0 v. aAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62/ v7 W M, c0 W- S+ {) _- A
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 631 E3 Y$ \% B9 {7 O7 x: ?
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63
" D. o6 T2 K) h+ M
+ t8 P" M; ]! L+ YTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63* ]4 j2 E. N& [1 }# O- R& R
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65. ]" F1 _9 Z5 W% D# D6 d
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66, t2 N0 [* ?/ Y, R1 w" m
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
, p i$ o8 j) c9 b/ wVoltage Probes ................................ 694 @9 e) Y9 z; K7 _6 x5 P
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
- B+ n+ r9 f; v( QFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72
2 n( b8 j5 C' b3 H3 ZConfirming Measurements ............... 744 t7 \ A) F( |' T& }. H# j- _
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 753 x- Y; R% n& t! H! f# d* g, a
Passive Probes .......................... 77
8 _4 e( k4 G/ S& S/ x) _' M& }% @Active Probes .......................... 79
2 p( R, b4 [' f: Z6 m; D$ jDifferential Probes ...................... 790 s: e" e1 |2 n) b3 k% S* D3 U
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
; h9 O& x$ f" b+ VOther Connections ...................... 91
& `7 o) g7 {8 K' D7 r+ ]Endnotes .................................... 91
. u7 ^# x; y& |# N6 y 6 The Distributed System ....................... 930 ^9 Y5 y6 Y f5 Q2 y% x x; O% r; Z
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
* x, m Z$ i. E5 H4 uInternal Noise .......................... 95$ P* M+ D1 q/ W1 G9 J4 |% Y) \
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95* E: d( C$ A2 o( B
Output Impedance ...................... 99
' r) p# h9 ]& g; H, CReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99& Z1 p. p4 P: v9 _" j8 _
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101 ?( [7 I7 f; ^7 [* ?( Y
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
. D, K& S% d' h" v$ _0 ~* o. G% [7 vImpact on Noise ........................ 102; z! p' _( T+ z6 w
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102( B; O/ x% l/ H, k, C% l
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103* X9 n! O- c' T, N& K
How Poor Stability Propagates through
% X+ S. N- j+ }the System ................................. 103* Z/ k: m6 U- V% {
Adding the PDNs ....................... 106; x$ ?$ I, F! w( j# ~6 L! m# x0 y
Endnotes .................................... 108) T$ H2 y7 c( }
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109- \: V! z: W/ a! ^) S, E" f
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
. |- n& l" ?: ?Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
# I7 E. ?+ K A' W1 v" ]: RTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123) [- t0 C! [9 j
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139# Q) Q3 v. z& w7 F
Impedance Adapters .................... 1427 Y6 Q( a$ B8 B/ W5 R: M. @
Endnotes .................................... 148, c; m$ t$ U3 o8 t
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151; @1 ]! Y3 k& H/ K1 }# y0 P% P
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151( Q3 i$ l3 h4 u- a; } Z
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
6 N& P) \' Z/ x, y6 e- ?Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay 6 X- r2 s E W/ e) [4 }. W ]# [
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153, C" w3 g2 @4 ?( G# G9 k+ U
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154" g) {, L8 s1 ~/ K0 ]
x( F. k2 |3 v" z
Contents* K' z, B: E2 D
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
2 U% I1 {4 B4 N9 S6 C+ iInjection Devices ........................ 161
) D6 ~( E: a; TSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
, Q+ \' z& }+ d1 JClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
4 ^4 z# T2 `& w7 oON and OFF Measurements .............. 170! u, q5 b) @: l- m/ B
Forward Measurements .................. 171
0 _4 Y$ Q+ N$ j$ S9 pMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
2 O& y5 j) U3 z! n- K5 q" z; nNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
8 S- q# Z4 @/ N# s: _Endnotes .................................... 1796 \2 L, C; d7 Q, u8 m j/ x" n
' F }6 p( R8 H/ s/ v: A! I9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181" H; E+ l5 a% s. t' U4 T
Measurement Methods ........................ 182, y5 z6 Q& c% l8 N% K
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
0 c, q$ z( r+ Q2 H8 zDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182# m; c8 h3 {4 M
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
- }9 {& g+ D( m3 MLine Injector ............................ 184 N7 g9 r/ G1 }) C' P
Current Injector ......................... 188
" P! }! f8 L$ ?: U! i4 u+ f( IDC Amplifier ........................... 189* s. l) }' B9 M' ]$ C
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
9 [& m. S) ^8 S8 hVNA .................................. 189
. y5 V; T3 H W" c1 L( T. ]Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189: B- V/ h" L9 I1 X7 x( C0 |" @ i
Oscilloscope ............................ 190
6 r2 d9 d3 D5 V5 YProbes and Sensitivity ................... 1904 F( |# a% D& k0 T, e$ Z C* J5 G
Endnotes .................................... 200
7 c. @9 `6 i/ a. k% e/ b 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
! `* H/ A ^/ L! d tReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201, p& \+ O: b% l1 \( S
Series Linear Regulators ................. 2014 L3 G [; v* W6 d
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
/ d3 ~1 f" _, u- BPOL Regulators ......................... 2035 |2 E) O; X8 W( l$ `
Operational Amplifiers .................. 2041 Y( j4 m* h( O
Modulating the Output Current ................ 2045 S, T2 B+ O: p5 C: z1 w
Current Injector ......................... 205
7 e2 N! j3 Z2 ?0 F% z1 N9 \1 IDC Bias Injector ........................ 2052 Y: L A$ F+ V) S% Q
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205* d, T5 A2 P$ ]
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
4 t: O# V( B( B: }Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
Y4 Q+ z% L, j( P. tCalibrating the Measurement ............. 2093 A5 z( N3 Z/ [9 R c8 v& [
Indirect Measurement ......................... 2099 H/ k. A9 m1 b0 O# ]0 h7 e
Endnotes .................................... 216
# Q3 Y# `- u4 [, G 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
8 d& v9 D9 N( e7 @8 mGenerating the Transient ....................... 217
C0 W( I6 M- X3 m; J. dCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
4 k% [1 _$ P9 D. p W/ ^9 uSlew Rate .............................. 219
1 Y! O8 h2 y, E$ iCurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
6 w& P' _: c8 m' _ Contents
) Q+ y# m4 S' H/ R$ A2 F' Oxi& E7 R* H6 Y B
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
$ R6 l4 g- ?6 GLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 2237 Y0 R5 U, ^# W, I, U5 r5 q
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
$ \; j9 M! @3 f! N* q" TSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
$ {; d0 O1 y/ o+ N4 `3 I0 REndnotes .................................... 232
" G* O' y$ X; o2 e, E4 ^& R# B3 O0 y 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
; m8 k4 P3 A# m$ @% oSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 2348 z9 h4 U. i0 l+ D, E0 y
In or Out of System ..................... 234
/ r# ]7 l1 {, aDirect or Indirect ....................... 234" g5 T: Z" A/ f1 E, O/ s5 ^
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234
5 c% U( Y3 c9 N( XConnecting the Equipment ..................... 2352 [$ \8 w2 |8 J9 s+ D0 u, C
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235
_( f; F+ [ D+ YActive Scope Probes ..................... 2369 z. x" o. {" ^ R
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
* Z/ K& N; s: F" i0 T! |! qChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
1 ^! Q$ \/ |, i3 Y6 I. j( W0 gAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252
- q: J0 M1 r9 n$ t! R5 p) ]Endnotes .................................... 252/ A/ D$ m' D- T4 `2 ?/ m0 x
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
+ O1 K) [) ~/ B+ a y* _Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
4 y5 V( b7 f0 f3 t: k4 vCascading Rise Times ................... 256
) j/ g; ]. H! G1 Q4 ]* f' HImpact of Filters and Bandwidth
1 C# k; a4 {+ c8 L: MLimiting ............................. 257
; x8 M4 H' c$ m& {Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261" ~0 E% U; E& h/ l
Interpolation ................................. 264
$ n. {; f! p8 W8 E0 d( SCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2655 h0 o/ h4 A; M; ^8 Y
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 2654 I" b0 Z' E; z0 O: j* k& V
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
$ k6 _ x# S9 b: m- H! S YPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
- q' v& @( p+ yProbes ....................................... 2696 I3 s4 D. @: W8 ^. h4 I! x/ d4 M
Endnotes .................................... 273
; P# J2 j" e% o5 [: _ 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
8 h- m4 {# U Z1 Z9 r; aThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
: u1 p5 v/ K4 Y$ x5 GThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 277- F3 o7 j9 i6 R+ f
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278# [) H% [$ ?* a! S% Y5 C9 T
The Measurement Instrument .................. 2814 w! ?1 I" L& r% v" Z" ~5 j
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281. A! p3 g' F5 L. y4 a
Endnotes .................................... 295% x* W6 _1 x, y' v4 |, j
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
: C! ^( U4 Z% i, t# Q' C# B6 {Time Domain ................................. 2971 D- I4 Q/ s9 \4 t9 @4 h2 d; Z- h
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298' C. C' T! L5 w$ y2 G
Calibration ................................... 299
, P4 E3 H$ _, x( ?0 oReference Plane ............................... 300- z9 |' Z6 K# C, E9 i7 `
xii; F+ D" E M7 s- \- M t- r5 ]
Contents
) P9 }) e5 r% [) G0 ?Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303, A9 E2 H" }: @% ?
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
3 A& E9 U6 F5 {! Q( ^Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307& F) L# c7 ?4 ?% |4 h
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314- Q+ C r; \1 J# y
Endnotes .................................... 316
& e- d! v z( x- b Index ....................................... 319 |
|