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contents
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, `- x, d8 L& _1 Introduction ................................. 1) A9 h9 x5 d1 L3 I* N: \3 R
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1; X9 f+ H) N, K% H3 \6 w+ j
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
; Z/ K& C" d; S! I1 b3 G0 KThe General Format of This Book ............... 2
9 ?# k% @$ b4 E& ~Why Measure .......................... 3- Z& T& L" {4 b7 D- W
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
5 T4 T* U1 j- {3 N/ L# JDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5/ E% e5 @* e' C% [0 u+ C2 }3 ~
Troubleshooting ........................ 52 J( u8 y' [2 W" P
Validation or Verification ................. 7
6 {# u9 M- j0 v6 R2 J2 m- f' b, {Terminology ........................... 7
. N4 A1 J/ b! ]! a. f 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11& ^( j4 i! M4 ~, J" b1 Z
Cause No Damage ............................ 11% l `8 D8 t5 U, R% _4 ^3 f
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
. a! h/ |2 j0 V) Q" L1 o1 zValidate the Test Setup and & A9 t- h8 |( }
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
2 H& G b# h4 G' [- ~Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14
' y! r! }8 L( b) j; c; ~8 W6 M7 nNoninvasive versus Invasive * b: ?+ I" r+ ^0 q- F7 d5 h% r
Measurement ........................ 14
: S1 T& ~4 g6 Q& E( X4 j/ A7 QIn situ Measurement .................... 141 [5 q7 A L3 h8 \0 ]! R. e. l1 y
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
! ~' G' l" n4 F- X: [8 Z' wDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
+ ]' v7 t) R( \The Test Engineer and Contact % [8 D9 i$ d7 \2 t) M8 s" K3 @: F
Information .......................... 15: i& d& P; p$ P
The Purpose of the Test .................. 164 S j& E1 E* R. p( w; l6 h ^' ?' F
Simulated or Expected Results if * D/ ?+ q* N& w0 a7 }/ |- n
Available ............................ 17: Z0 H0 k- p7 _/ r9 W
The Date and Physical Location / k# |; R8 L* b0 J! T) ~
of the Testing ........................ 18
8 I+ u+ T2 u% x* A" H! jOperational Test Environment 4 s9 o% S$ p8 y/ @; i
and Conditions ....................... 18# ]" r3 M+ }# ?
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
. }5 E- \8 p x' V- [, d(Including Probes) and Verification That . y( H- K0 M. n4 `1 i
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
+ F3 _% @- E; p; }# C# mSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 193 u, a6 O6 [/ ^! S ^0 E
Measurement Annotations and 9 C7 p9 V: M( F* j" P$ m
Comments .......................... 20 `) G% k; S: B
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
+ p- p0 }) F( K6 N9 G6 _
+ a8 U4 D1 a8 I+ {2 r) g0 C6 v3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 210 y& u- t/ k4 V# Y
Sensitivity ................................... 21
1 a' ~ D. f1 @+ lNoise Floor .................................. 22- p7 Q! e: m1 z& j" D; ^, S0 Z
Dynamic Range .............................. 22) L" w6 W- J5 _
Noise Density ................................ 274 n! |% ~4 u" l6 H- o; u: V
Signal Averaging ............................. 310 n( E) Q% c& u: T# ^
Scaling ...................................... 332 R) a- A* L5 U1 u8 P) _( y$ C4 V
Attenuators .................................. 34
9 D& H- b0 f F7 DPreamplifiers ................................. 35% ?- h) w1 A- l8 h! R+ H
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36 w+ q4 w6 c% b0 D q) y: @
Measurement Domains ........................ 387 X9 f; b* W- M5 ~ B
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
) }9 L6 B( |: B3 PGain and Phase ......................... 38- g+ y% `1 h$ |7 O/ N
S-Parameters ........................... 38# l$ ]" e2 G+ g9 T4 C% m# `6 @
Impedance ............................. 39. j, C3 t; h" s0 c- h: d; t. }- |) @
Time Domain ........................... 40
; t1 y/ f- a+ d- W% USpectrum Domain ....................... 42
: N; H* z) `' _; bComparing Domains .................... 44
/ k% w4 J+ v- T& ^) c5 WEndnotes .................................... 46
1 R5 r8 X( J1 I5 }0 J 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47, Q2 r" a8 w! r% F# u6 {# p
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
+ o* z$ q( i6 K$ ]" d& N( cNetwork Analyzers ......................... 47
( a A; L$ L- [ iOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49* x z& J* d5 ^
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 509 Q( I* W/ b8 z1 |/ A
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
! t; S$ { j2 \: T. wTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
: B: |/ {2 }; L$ Z+ Y8 zRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52* J% P, b% Q h# V$ y+ V2 @8 a
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 L3 D6 s5 @* F9 {7 c% v7 N
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
; C+ c$ W! L" ]' i' q. I2 _Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 557 w& A* w) I' ?7 k3 P+ @2 W% e
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
, o% X5 B/ D3 U7 ]/ cTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56* x. i* @7 M6 K; `7 |, ~1 f5 I5 O& R
Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
- `' G/ O2 y1 X" i/ c/ \0 GOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59) V5 m/ P8 K, c7 `: j
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59& j% V- R* {$ S# {2 B
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 59$ L4 [( t) M# d( i' ]$ ^
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60: t2 [- _1 B( l; f6 g
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
0 V& ]8 |1 B9 p1 mSignal Generators ............................. 62- ?$ E- x& Y4 l C6 ~* u+ \
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62- Q) c% W. U" ? h
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 632 L4 `, n( z2 e6 T- k
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63
1 i) w, s: \- @! n! c, ~# N1 `; L, N6 ^3 W7 G$ r8 q
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
, e* e2 D7 G. v, TTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 659 Y4 y* D3 h6 D* B) g! m
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66( r9 c" J" n% k. p. L
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69 ~1 `) S$ C8 f
Voltage Probes ................................ 69- L- \& ?" p F5 G1 ^: i: s
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
5 }3 P# e; B8 P2 v# X, _! ~% YFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72& t. A, v, T$ v: J: @& W z
Confirming Measurements ............... 746 P1 B& K3 m5 F
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75) Y' ^7 v x5 o
Passive Probes .......................... 771 }7 e0 u* T/ P. f+ L3 Z5 x4 h
Active Probes .......................... 79# ~; [1 R; H5 N; ?
Differential Probes ...................... 79
" l2 o; ]) Y1 x6 FSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
! F2 p0 ]# y6 K5 ^- QOther Connections ...................... 91
1 ~( z1 k6 Z; M0 C6 mEndnotes .................................... 911 B, b9 ^7 n, ^& W( _9 d
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93/ A/ W9 X8 |3 V$ ]
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93- g9 F( |% E; I$ x. x: N5 T8 r
Internal Noise .......................... 95
: N1 p0 ]6 P [7 \Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
0 k4 x/ V3 h* x+ h3 ?Output Impedance ...................... 99: e4 e( r- m( q% L6 S
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
' _* a E5 Z% R2 l1 C% Q0 TControl Loop Stability ......................... 101" q4 ~2 Q2 f6 s1 u
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 1017 }! D3 e$ e+ W* Q3 W+ `
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
. l9 M% i% X% Q* y" Z0 o# NImpact on PSRR ........................ 102+ r* d4 o" g: I" R- m3 M8 f8 [
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
0 d* i1 i% p; iHow Poor Stability Propagates through
% v) v. g+ {* s8 xthe System ................................. 103
' w+ v0 v3 w1 Y5 a) [% F: w/ rAdding the PDNs ....................... 1060 ~2 i5 b" _9 y/ l
Endnotes .................................... 1082 h1 x& I+ d7 w( B1 e9 u8 g
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
" B9 O4 H2 m3 j, g% j* K( MSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
6 n' C2 b( ^6 s" ^- h7 aSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109+ O6 g8 S( f3 g
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123. g c4 M5 c6 ~9 A& I
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139+ D. ~: ?+ Z* }! B7 L
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
$ ]* Q8 ? ~( i" ]/ N/ Z* ~/ V9 wEndnotes .................................... 148, J' x0 S$ u6 c* @( R0 L8 B
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151# U- d8 V! M! n& t" l" l: R# u) G" B
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 1517 r5 P8 ]: X3 r/ K) ?3 ^0 ]
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
. v3 @# [; ~! h( l6 @2 U, ZGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
9 w7 B+ Q- O+ A- n+ h6 Q" FMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153- F9 g0 V f1 B* ?3 V! X
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
2 y* W5 p2 w( ?3 r8 D% Z% k' Xx
" \. ?. B6 H% V! s$ C, [: n Contents
; I! D. a9 ~1 L1 r5 fOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 1592 L3 _: A. `, b$ f% K# B
Injection Devices ........................ 161
* _* q* _& }1 o2 wSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
2 D5 B0 e6 @( l3 z% a8 c) G; o$ QClosed-Loop Measurement ............... 1697 O/ \% Q1 e" D N
ON and OFF Measurements .............. 1704 p/ S4 a2 v, D% @$ |
Forward Measurements .................. 1718 F) \1 b1 \! E' }7 {9 D
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 1714 `- N m! W" l8 V5 M i
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
7 J! S! E m# vEndnotes .................................... 179% v- C2 `& c2 d8 J
! y+ r7 L6 p) i) V) D! X* H9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
6 p" H; d& E& ^8 i1 |4 ?' ZMeasurement Methods ........................ 1823 _" B1 s. ?) X' b' U" ^/ G
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182" p) E% ?% \4 V! a# W
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
8 M* ^: J `: }9 q7 ~$ r7 ^( U& lModulating the Input ......................... 183& V) R2 Q% F# s0 p- ~
Line Injector ............................ 184
! R0 {" s0 n) j. p5 ^( c1 cCurrent Injector ......................... 188
2 h8 k5 N( P! g% e9 CDC Amplifier ........................... 1895 t/ W: j6 M, _, p3 S' X
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 1894 t9 Z- n6 _. e- B
VNA .................................. 189- V0 n& J0 t; ^) Q# ]( b
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
. G5 h# }, {% I# t6 [/ ], C2 aOscilloscope ............................ 190
, x5 \9 s, L; E6 S9 JProbes and Sensitivity ................... 190
7 y) W! f" X' f a+ c9 dEndnotes .................................... 200: e' A. j+ m$ d& i$ G' {+ }8 g
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201/ E7 k% }+ }3 e6 Z% b0 p8 A1 d9 B
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201- D+ Z2 P2 u8 t% F9 d0 e9 T
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201
$ @ ]" V- _ W4 s& q! KShunt Regulators ....................... 201
) H# D. @: |: L) |0 n; YPOL Regulators ......................... 203
$ _) E0 `% f8 L' d1 G% nOperational Amplifiers .................. 2044 ~: q. V* R5 L% o$ W
Modulating the Output Current ................ 2043 H. g8 M& b$ T! ?2 K7 P' I
Current Injector ......................... 205
+ K$ S# y- I: v! v/ B+ U5 G }* F5 LDC Bias Injector ........................ 205
* Y( w9 L( |& [7 m3 mMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205
1 o$ Q! A# [+ X6 bCalibrating the Measurement ............. 205% {) ?5 e. H$ [& Y/ Q
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
& I* @, \: W6 I/ GCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209( O! L- r* n$ B) ?# @
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209
/ U2 f& d: V) Z- OEndnotes .................................... 216
- d- \0 m! y! H7 `8 q J8 x5 o$ E: o" s 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217# [8 X, v0 u3 B8 i7 L
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
! B4 n8 j0 g2 I2 xCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217
/ ?7 u+ \/ J' F3 iSlew Rate .............................. 219
4 j; I8 P- @1 @5 U$ }$ LCurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221 v# A2 {( g; p% O
Contents
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Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 2233 {+ K, a8 |0 R# j6 S$ Q
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
j; D& s; I+ a3 s7 N4 e6 HNotes about Averaging .................. 224
8 l b: o4 P# M1 \Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
+ m+ }8 f( B1 [+ z J8 K2 hEndnotes .................................... 232
1 B9 {; k& ]- |* y% { 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
( |/ K: \/ a, z3 XSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
! ?( }9 t) _3 T4 ^0 z$ }3 DIn or Out of System ..................... 234! G( e9 ?9 ?; K$ F) r: y
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
6 f8 K" g& z! \. r- c1 T4 gTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234. T: Q, d. ]2 L& I7 J6 }
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235. N/ F2 m4 t% D" Y
Passive Scope Probes .................... 2353 M( o. k0 o, j/ o* C5 T
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236* f& { O7 J4 h$ y5 t9 e
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
+ \ u- j& p& ~9 A3 rChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2378 P- L+ i/ G) b8 M% ]
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 2527 m& h, D1 s3 h B o5 E
Endnotes .................................... 2523 R6 ^* K, k+ s, k; f; B6 N8 V' P0 W
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253 R# L3 S/ @" H' Z" |
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253; U) G8 y% O$ e
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256$ H/ F6 u* H0 Z9 M$ K2 j) V
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
! v7 J7 G+ z* C9 N+ M0 U0 YLimiting ............................. 2571 j" z! D2 w# H. o5 J4 ^/ P
Sampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261$ ?, N- ~" E) N" k0 {/ d" R
Interpolation ................................. 264( u- F+ e( Y9 N" d3 |
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
3 K) B! p" X, g: Q2 e! ^Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265! m I/ l; y" b. Q8 k# U/ i
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
, b9 c% T. d0 d/ h( `Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
% C6 }# l5 T5 V* N. \Probes ....................................... 269; p6 x8 g/ {, G4 H- h
Endnotes .................................... 273
% U2 f# I- i9 B! @- ?: a6 v 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275" e e* }' R- o$ u/ f
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275% M0 V6 A- @* H: Z
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
3 z+ Q7 C# e+ k$ bProbe and Orientation ......................... 2780 S+ Y, Q$ C! x' w6 |% {
The Measurement Instrument .................. 281
$ L ?$ Q( m: ~3 Q7 i7 t' F' ]Spectrum Gating .............................. 281+ Z9 q; }3 X4 Q# O+ F& X8 L% I
Endnotes .................................... 295% B7 J, ?% u) \
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297& N. o1 k6 _( C2 s' P
Time Domain ................................. 297 V0 A. l( a7 k2 G+ q6 s" M
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
" p- z4 J) Y+ u9 g. N9 MCalibration ................................... 299
b, I( V1 }$ K IReference Plane ............................... 300
8 k/ p$ z. j0 u+ L% U+ d; i; Fxii0 L. G' z% k; l- o; {- w
Contents+ [+ s( M0 D& _% t. N
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303- A! j5 B6 M6 T4 H; v, h
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304' d ~1 E2 q6 s5 N% q# c, H
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307* D7 `9 i) C8 b* l3 ^* v( h$ R9 U
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314, b' @3 l# _. w+ }
Endnotes .................................... 316* H% |; G, f/ P) y3 Y: M N
Index ....................................... 319 |
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