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contents
% P, Y6 i% x) {7 U& C( w
: ~; `- R) m7 x+ L# b" @6 f1 Introduction ................................. 1# _/ \8 x7 l+ A/ o5 [! ^ {/ V1 Y0 w
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 13 W( i+ Y6 m+ @( T, t4 B0 ^1 x6 S
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2' h4 P$ m8 t& g+ L3 d Y5 N3 {% p
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
; F3 T* O/ z6 n7 }8 W7 |6 EWhy Measure .......................... 3+ J" S1 w' |' D X+ e9 R4 A8 Z
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3
$ ?% R- Y3 ]# I% g* ^Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5( n: \5 c" l1 s+ x( [( x
Troubleshooting ........................ 5
& @0 ?3 l7 }8 j* e! S3 p, ]Validation or Verification ................. 74 |; b# y! E, d# |
Terminology ........................... 72 p* O. p) t* h* l G
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11# Q0 L* z% Q. F& j- ~
Cause No Damage ............................ 114 j! }1 [' s5 `* A ^
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
, w; l& u3 z e/ N- r$ y. ^Validate the Test Setup and / X8 L) ?, `$ E0 E. z* ]0 g0 p
Measurement Limits ........................ 125 G; u- j& i6 a& G; F1 `5 J( y
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 144 ?" ] Z( |7 z. z
Noninvasive versus Invasive , F; C, R& t8 G9 ?7 E
Measurement ........................ 14
& Q% c# Q9 \4 C8 R* S( lIn situ Measurement .................... 14
( a5 G$ L+ L3 F0 K2 J4 r1 qIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
9 U# A- V1 N2 ~* }2 B3 H, r jDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
4 r9 I! W! |7 x' AThe Test Engineer and Contact
' u- K5 I9 {. C; cInformation .......................... 15
$ V% {( H j$ [- `) sThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16+ n+ O" K X. }* A; W! b5 L
Simulated or Expected Results if
( h. w+ L) G% n8 t3 pAvailable ............................ 17$ h) ]4 N2 O5 M. J) \
The Date and Physical Location 1 ~2 ~! Y" A U1 o7 g% M" B
of the Testing ........................ 18
p! `0 _9 S0 IOperational Test Environment
4 c" P, N# x( c" G/ C8 f9 ]and Conditions ....................... 18
3 \' |& J$ r% X7 o0 WThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment ' Q; z- r& @1 ~- D) D& u, c
(Including Probes) and Verification That . p5 |( [3 y" @/ X: J; J
They Are Calibrated .................. 187 y4 o7 Z1 v2 [( R4 t3 r5 }
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
; |* D1 u8 ]' i' ^5 z$ _Measurement Annotations and ; O1 X8 m+ q; D; V/ o5 b( D
Comments .......................... 20
( M4 v/ j* T8 }Any Observed Anomalies ............... 201 R2 l& _" U# p$ g
3 l6 a M; \5 b$ v( i& W
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 219 z! e( P/ W$ M5 ~! n
Sensitivity ................................... 212 a V, G. b# U& v z
Noise Floor .................................. 22% U4 B* J; q3 r9 Z g5 S! X
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
9 z5 F% }: L. s+ `Noise Density ................................ 273 n% L( ^9 K" i% _
Signal Averaging ............................. 31, O9 u' X% {# ~0 ~; [
Scaling ...................................... 334 P% O- k1 X( `& F) I# Z! o
Attenuators .................................. 343 o+ }, d- K) c9 Q: _
Preamplifiers ................................. 354 v9 l0 f1 _6 Y$ e! [+ D1 e) ^
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
0 @0 v# \* e+ o( k' k R# cMeasurement Domains ........................ 38/ \4 x8 }0 Y( s' k( R6 m
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
( `. V6 w: o& ZGain and Phase ......................... 38
9 v2 Z( `+ P* pS-Parameters ........................... 38- q. T+ I7 X# ^: _. U) }
Impedance ............................. 39
5 L9 M. d3 G5 r: {9 c {- z" kTime Domain ........................... 40 x5 R y- x6 t- @' E# j: [% U
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42
+ e: y6 f' a9 b, b; q- RComparing Domains .................... 44
9 Q. _, _ L9 A" G3 L* M' ZEndnotes .................................... 46
, Y3 _+ @8 F( z1 d0 f. r9 a 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
" f" O+ H. {) x! ?( C7 T5 UFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector . ~% d" h; [& @' y( R) ~" o" i
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
! u4 Q# W; ~2 K ]+ z% ?OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49/ R: ?3 K. }* _
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 504 F/ c1 J: m. J7 }5 _4 N
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50
; t! ^/ ~" x$ QTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
7 P' K# Q: r8 ?2 [& \4 @Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 520 F% q! w+ T3 n; f
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53# f9 C8 Y i7 }5 {
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54! e' ]! m1 R1 R( O5 P5 z6 p, E
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55" j1 s) O5 [3 I) x( ^/ x9 a
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 569 p0 V' H) X& s. R+ P! X0 ~
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
& U N5 ]& F4 `) F Y! z0 E+ P- WTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58) q4 i9 I5 d& g( `: C
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59" ~0 f' \1 i" i" }! G9 J
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
1 D/ v! X1 x, X p- NTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
( ^8 f! Q1 H) s* Z+ W7 MAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 606 e3 q) z6 _- D! T4 n% W, W
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
/ |0 c8 w7 G& |/ u* X/ b* SSignal Generators ............................. 62( V0 o: p W$ W4 Q2 o0 M8 w' H R
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62" A) _7 A( I3 A
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
; V: i5 C& x" z# h; ^7 R9 `" JPicotest G5100A ........................ 638 J" R9 h; {0 u/ d/ t
: \* d, G7 ]$ u1 m' k
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
2 _/ J* g5 i2 B5 F$ D6 nTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
! ? B! p! C( }. G2 E) U9 q# PAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66* i9 `: C, [- j$ [# `/ ?4 g
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
$ h; B. U9 n) O1 wVoltage Probes ................................ 69+ K5 H4 R: y: a# r9 p
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 707 B) w% k1 ?, z" E
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
6 Z$ A- o- e7 c1 x ?) g1 vConfirming Measurements ............... 74
; A4 }# p: i M+ Z; fSelecting a Voltage Probe ................. 755 `- w8 p4 ]8 F% i; Y7 ]
Passive Probes .......................... 77- Z( B6 q4 c$ j' ?
Active Probes .......................... 79" x# R. e) G3 K. |
Differential Probes ...................... 79* s+ _7 g4 [5 ]5 D* x4 T) C& h
Specialty Probes ........................ 80 {. n+ \# `& w! q! I
Other Connections ...................... 91
) i/ \9 v2 j/ P5 g; ?# uEndnotes .................................... 91
. y" f o) r* f2 Z7 `0 q5 T0 w 6 The Distributed System ....................... 93/ Z7 }3 e+ v) r' K1 @
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
0 l' o0 C. y3 P S( `6 e' ~4 YInternal Noise .......................... 95) H- e4 d4 Z5 L0 L# m* v6 u
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
1 D' f9 T9 E: [/ d; S9 IOutput Impedance ...................... 99
& s: Q0 N# V9 l4 ?: P6 q* pReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
( S/ ]$ ?$ ~; H C" K3 TControl Loop Stability ......................... 101/ X1 c' d8 f1 e
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 1012 [% q* K$ U% J; z5 |& s5 F
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
) ]/ p" G' a& y( H" |! @5 iImpact on PSRR ........................ 102; b! [% O; ~$ `. ~( x$ |
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103+ e) Z; N3 ^3 P2 o2 g8 G
How Poor Stability Propagates through J' x1 @- M# x# q1 S; Y
the System ................................. 103
& v- R9 V ? i w2 K( zAdding the PDNs ....................... 1069 _1 U: q+ F0 ?: r% t2 ]
Endnotes .................................... 108; y. X! \$ l l
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 1099 k: K4 R8 Y( h4 g6 x
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 1096 e7 b h. R" j) `5 t
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
$ {9 y8 S: V: q: c, o1 [) _" [Two-Port Measurements ................. 123
K2 ?' Q' P: z: |8 @3 WCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 139
" M3 s' n% I# S% \( b% \" K4 _- XImpedance Adapters .................... 142
: N8 Y% {* t( ^' ZEndnotes .................................... 148
$ |0 d& J+ i4 T# J/ d3 m7 V 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151! S( s8 l/ F/ z# @: W
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 1517 j' z* |8 F$ K, A8 Y4 C; y+ R
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1514 W2 ?7 P1 ]3 S4 S! D" m6 z4 `
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay ' J2 Q0 H( q/ Z& p" o
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153, t; g! m" o, ^/ |- }6 d: N
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 1545 f& E' A1 @% X0 j
x) ~, a4 m5 {/ l- i) b
Contents/ h# k; O3 \/ Z
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
- j$ h- y+ B7 _+ }' eInjection Devices ........................ 1615 {8 l0 K; q# o( G' s6 s% E
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 1641 r: I' U; S( p9 h) r
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
% u0 I% ~* _( ]4 L3 K' nON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
" J4 s( j! J5 M4 b& }0 MForward Measurements .................. 171( A# A. q c8 e
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
6 {' v+ x- X) W+ J I! J9 {3 \Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
* C, d* ~/ O, ~8 c3 s9 hEndnotes .................................... 179
: C5 L1 y2 ^ n8 x$ P) A
5 v! [. Y* J( P X& d& C- [& @, G9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 1812 T5 c9 v8 C# ?+ \& |% H
Measurement Methods ........................ 182
( g/ O% a G: P8 m6 B* lIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
* u5 N2 D9 K$ j! ^2 m% G" P# ZDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182. z; j9 h0 k4 B7 B' }
Modulating the Input ......................... 183- m$ X r! g- [3 A+ @; p/ L
Line Injector ............................ 184
/ ]- O; N* a. N! UCurrent Injector ......................... 188( r" j# O8 M: Y5 w5 F! p
DC Amplifier ........................... 189 K( S1 H F) `. l/ ` {
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
6 C0 D- }( z8 G. n$ N" N% aVNA .................................. 189
" x6 O/ u8 U9 n2 F2 e6 S- pSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
' i O7 n1 S) y. e$ NOscilloscope ............................ 190+ K+ k) S& k1 f1 s& c# ~0 t! f7 o8 Q
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
\4 x; I9 |( F2 B8 @( ?/ Y, H1 f4 W8 _" gEndnotes .................................... 200
0 K# i% v1 Y. I' S) u' @ 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
# Z. w" ~" R9 p+ l' _7 yReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201 ` k, J# O" N/ p
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201% {+ B: ]8 ^/ n% t' h
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
" Y& i9 Q9 s) {* @6 T' QPOL Regulators ......................... 203
R8 ?* a5 {/ dOperational Amplifiers .................. 2045 S+ T) j6 A& ?7 F7 p5 A
Modulating the Output Current ................ 204( ]; p! r6 m/ W: Z8 {: _
Current Injector ......................... 205( e2 S- Y6 }2 \5 I: ?- F9 o" k1 l
DC Bias Injector ........................ 205
* n- C! o: @) k, l# N# \$ X3 xMeasuring the Input Current ................... 205; b) H! D9 ~- _) U3 n( J
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205: Q: G* J6 O$ f8 V1 a" e
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207! u0 A& N9 w7 ^) g: P
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 209, t3 U& @& Q C( B
Indirect Measurement ......................... 209/ ?, D- D! W1 @" i
Endnotes .................................... 216' \+ H4 u3 u: n# C
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217
. x% d7 c: e& \+ H! o5 c, L P& [6 EGenerating the Transient ....................... 217
: ] c, m% M$ p' j" R2 CCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217' h. |' e1 u( T: ]2 k; U, U
Slew Rate .............................. 219
; t4 H( {" A& D; t6 G# c8 ?Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
4 B3 d$ Q& ]: Z+ [' X( x7 J9 O, o6 j Contents ; m8 q2 ^( X& n z& R8 E7 d
xi5 O5 H( K1 }3 Y4 V2 W5 K
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 2235 ^; N4 e- H i8 d% l4 m
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223& h1 h+ B# P8 {. i
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
9 Y: b8 w, m1 [! USample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
$ S! r! U9 b4 } s2 `Endnotes .................................... 2320 ?/ q- U1 A; f
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233/ a+ s: x/ {+ r
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234: L) h" N5 a9 W
In or Out of System ..................... 234: K' s( \7 T5 F9 I0 M
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234/ v- T8 S/ C6 P+ M1 a( Q* F- y
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234+ J( x1 m# J5 q X
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235. W& U, E7 j& N
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235% o; Z$ v4 K7 ~/ f/ Z6 L7 f
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236* M W7 c' f5 b. e" _' P- J
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236* @5 c0 w( U: W5 }5 T
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237) M+ |6 B" n1 b! _1 T% ?6 o! L
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252
! J& [% _& L* G) H0 C5 {, nEndnotes .................................... 252
8 e+ `$ r$ f' t6 n: o6 w 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 2538 [* g$ t1 F2 Y! @, |
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 2537 H' K, s u. E7 T* y+ P
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256
4 R& Z7 p' X6 }Impact of Filters and Bandwidth 1 p0 }# X/ U3 s9 U6 c
Limiting ............................. 257
* l! T: W2 ^: S9 O6 M) r" mSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
8 d9 p, _' s% O! c7 `Interpolation ................................. 2648 A& y( G* N9 m" I1 c
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265. ?1 f% `( f( |! {& x% i- k( Y
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 2651 H" f. K5 V- r1 I
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
( i5 I2 s5 j v3 T [Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
1 R* x( p( F) R8 f0 aProbes ....................................... 2695 B5 g0 C2 S) P: l8 B
Endnotes .................................... 2736 S5 d, {+ M( x/ v! m
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 2759 \. ^( Q. y4 @! v% l6 S, N
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275" V9 Z: G4 X& s+ k
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 2772 `) z2 T% a" U8 Q- Y1 L
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
1 ~) {( k+ g# c& h, i& v! ZThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281' \) R! X9 L; w# j; g% \
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281
9 |. E% Y& C+ W; x/ B/ dEndnotes .................................... 295
8 U3 e( g( E ?7 F: J 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 2979 ]* h( g. @7 F6 F$ @$ Y
Time Domain ................................. 297: \$ Q3 v o* [; F% r0 o5 u
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
8 e9 l. [$ A- {! Y- N& dCalibration ................................... 299
1 h# M( m0 G3 J2 UReference Plane ............................... 300
/ a% Q/ k& y1 f& @* A+ Axii
0 G0 t& _- R/ H; z3 y' R- h Contents' _% `( N: g! g. Q S
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 3038 z. d% D0 [2 o: q) o# `" @0 y+ i
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3047 }- j: k* c: K4 {5 m
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
* {2 I$ {" }- `$ qS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314; k# n, M; }: x4 [; H, x
Endnotes .................................... 3161 {3 A2 P4 X# q# e
Index ....................................... 319 |
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