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contents' x* i* z/ O" e" h, @( y; {8 ?- ?
' H8 L- ^, C" u
1 Introduction ................................. 1
* K$ u- M- U" @4 \What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1. G# O4 x1 k$ O x
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
6 N$ V; B4 Z8 Q/ MThe General Format of This Book ............... 2- e3 N8 {2 W }) l; }
Why Measure .......................... 3
6 J6 B2 u' G4 f7 \1 b) Y- IObtain or Validate Data ................. 3# z8 |4 O( P5 ~& @
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 54 L, y. E3 H- @" F. U3 {2 H7 l( o1 z5 m
Troubleshooting ........................ 54 v3 U7 t: g: _% u) ^- p. l
Validation or Verification ................. 72 Y2 E& F3 }/ }6 m) R' ?
Terminology ........................... 7
" I9 N/ V) W; L0 u2 k& I; ?9 b4 N 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
& N% ^6 a# p# r% uCause No Damage ............................ 11
. F) h- u% U7 o7 f8 q8 }Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11% Q# \2 h4 [2 o
Validate the Test Setup and
. b7 G' ~7 \, U$ K/ M* lMeasurement Limits ........................ 12
# ^" ~+ P7 B5 p% D0 zMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14% z% G% a2 P( ~! o8 c3 K# z3 f
Noninvasive versus Invasive 1 |( b0 B/ b. {
Measurement ........................ 14+ @3 X6 J- J, r2 U- }
In situ Measurement .................... 14# h4 }( H% C$ M8 N! @, |+ h
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
. A, k* B! a8 x* ?! ]+ x H) EDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
7 Z5 u) s7 B7 D* f' S8 a3 u& d. HThe Test Engineer and Contact
5 @+ u: |0 h R+ X/ l& z7 g9 z% oInformation .......................... 15
e; D" K+ W2 h ~* S, h8 |. Y2 aThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
6 h7 |& _% J" {+ eSimulated or Expected Results if
& Q _% w$ d; p7 x5 NAvailable ............................ 172 _3 ^5 N( D9 m8 B! r. B
The Date and Physical Location : W# l* A( b2 W
of the Testing ........................ 18
0 W$ b, y8 P; f1 u. o& J" XOperational Test Environment ( _( {$ ]9 E: l8 m. E
and Conditions ....................... 18) _1 @* S" P4 F( o; F
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 3 z- p! k3 @. T4 _
(Including Probes) and Verification That ) {5 _; w# P! a% @3 \6 O
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
9 a+ p8 r8 G- ^Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19( f( U! r5 r8 d% }7 `8 N
Measurement Annotations and 5 z& L) G6 d+ o! s
Comments .......................... 20
& `; o$ k1 M1 p; U$ h3 e4 qAny Observed Anomalies ............... 200 k: z8 O- e/ q8 J/ c+ Q% s
# r' b3 V( i! ]" J: M$ m3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
: B& D; H' t, g- A( SSensitivity ................................... 21
4 o6 ]& B& w: HNoise Floor .................................. 22; e6 }, g& j- A
Dynamic Range .............................. 22# W a7 F' [3 I' L, x+ }
Noise Density ................................ 27' \) c( \3 j) v# ^* ]4 Y1 P
Signal Averaging ............................. 31
3 x' D1 j7 k* ]8 H. [8 M" e: eScaling ...................................... 33
' c6 I* V' \9 K# IAttenuators .................................. 34, w4 L/ o% @) i- i
Preamplifiers ................................. 359 c9 C3 N; L" j3 f3 j
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36/ B% V: H3 b4 ?' u/ P/ } P' O/ @
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
. Z3 m& r; l. E4 l CFrequency Domain ...................... 38
% t. A# W h( h jGain and Phase ......................... 381 c9 ~( Q& K2 S5 j8 s
S-Parameters ........................... 38
1 B( X, Q/ q- K+ ?7 IImpedance ............................. 39( d$ \# j' }( l9 Y) A3 t
Time Domain ........................... 40
$ Q' C! Z' [8 ?0 {* X% I4 QSpectrum Domain ....................... 42 T: `, e* p1 D$ i- ~
Comparing Domains .................... 44% s: d G- j/ [+ [4 }
Endnotes .................................... 46
1 C# a. v) g. W 4 Test Instruments ............................. 470 F; V+ N* d" m) h1 X* m- V0 ^* k4 |
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector
) J8 \ ]7 k7 o* x* d4 [Network Analyzers ......................... 47
' G, u' W& r# I, q$ o9 WOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 496 j/ v) J b2 t' l2 o
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
7 O- M& N4 S* N" v8 R* _! Q; XOscilloscopes ................................. 50
* t! O# h) h& e* c& {Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51# k; f! N( u: P: D
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
( [5 g$ X. n) r* x$ JTektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
$ L' \1 o$ I5 y# t' g" n gTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54. z+ P; Y; L: o1 {/ F8 s
Teledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
- O( K C2 C$ n, D. _; b5 E9 @$ TTektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
- W0 T2 M- m! Z- kTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
9 E m: `$ m/ QTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
, R" Q! ?' |" `OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59& D1 g, R; l3 V" t
Spectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
& F! f7 x- Q5 N% l$ m4 x* K0 j: RTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
1 x7 ^9 V: }8 r, l6 v+ ^Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
6 p0 } [& W }3 m# \# cAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 611 t, S( ]5 W: j" [: e$ x
Signal Generators ............................. 62
% b( s& R9 ?3 Q' H9 f7 WAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62, a+ h, y* q7 a4 h, Q4 C) V1 J# T$ \, `
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
7 T/ U' @" N6 r" w4 v9 L8 EPicotest G5100A ........................ 63# R6 {' u- ] s: V
$ |0 T7 I1 H& Q! [1 Y2 E5 l
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
& i0 h3 }( _4 T! g1 ?0 y3 ZTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
- o, Z( B5 X/ h, ~Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66$ ~, H6 L! }" n" T
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 690 d6 z2 A0 R& A) I9 {
Voltage Probes ................................ 69
$ c8 G* P# w4 pProbe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
: d' w' D% _/ l; TFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72. J$ x. o; C1 \+ ?- D
Confirming Measurements ............... 74
$ P( |# l8 I9 R" ?Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
' A$ ^& w. W: M2 e( g+ T; O, qPassive Probes .......................... 77
6 R+ ^5 l) Q9 UActive Probes .......................... 79
. n. U( M/ N/ q8 ~# jDifferential Probes ...................... 79
1 A+ t3 X9 u8 n4 d, ]9 YSpecialty Probes ........................ 80+ T! m, z$ [% Z6 O. o& W2 o
Other Connections ...................... 915 @$ ?; \. R. c. g& f
Endnotes .................................... 919 F. Z. o5 t9 f5 L! R
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93( L# r: t/ C6 g7 ~; {
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
, Q: k! ^* r& Q+ h9 k4 n" h0 hInternal Noise .......................... 95
0 n% R" M8 `: G3 R/ JPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95: [: i4 Y, k* G
Output Impedance ...................... 99
# v; t' w: b. N. S1 v( @5 VReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
7 ?* D. l* X- ]( u) J- f0 GControl Loop Stability ......................... 101
$ x8 |$ p$ S4 N- \+ f3 AImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101. u) ^) J" g+ \, ]; L
Impact on Noise ........................ 1029 h4 k' z8 P" H/ J
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
0 s$ I7 X5 k8 Q, W0 _# X& ~' _Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
8 A7 I- l: v. [) u7 f5 G2 v3 uHow Poor Stability Propagates through
' R( X5 x3 e# ]9 @1 S; [* fthe System ................................. 103
- f% `, K |. A* N3 FAdding the PDNs ....................... 1060 E1 ~6 {) Y; Y
Endnotes .................................... 108: E/ T! s( g# l
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
% W: d! g) F p2 ySelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
( h* n0 F+ l$ V0 A, y, }/ n2 GSingle-Port Measurements ............... 1098 D s" T4 {8 X+ f# {. D) M) K: u
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123- I; {8 ^( l& M1 r. U
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139" s- a0 ?" R+ |9 z- x2 Q, Y3 [
Impedance Adapters .................... 1421 j0 T# ^6 n) W* a- u d& J
Endnotes .................................... 148, j$ z* A& I/ B6 m* W& W
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
" R# R4 \, n# B5 E8 NStability and Why It Matters .................... 151
1 ?, R9 e8 w! x! |4 iControl Loop Basics ..................... 151$ a7 i& S3 Y# O8 a9 }4 c
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay % i& W( o# y3 l) D# U$ h; \2 z1 X
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153! N" ^+ d+ L- M$ ^$ q2 L1 ?
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
9 g6 {& t* s* V1 P) W% r# qx
2 q' [+ p1 i: u' E. }* b Contents
& A5 i' r" _5 t2 vOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 1598 t X8 B2 l& g! _9 @1 r: }3 q
Injection Devices ........................ 161, T! Y+ R+ i! t$ w {/ c7 k
Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164$ d9 D1 q# d% W+ h
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
7 U) {+ Z% n; N+ d7 y$ qON and OFF Measurements .............. 170' m6 c# r( n0 |! s; i
Forward Measurements .................. 171
: e/ \, H, x, @# x3 e4 KMinor Loop Gain ....................... 171
# ]: P& a1 e5 pNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174- y4 h" ]" a( q. ~, o( K6 F
Endnotes .................................... 179$ k: A* L" c) h3 J
% ?2 P& K7 W+ W6 x7 {
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
4 O. G! {" @- w9 o4 uMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
1 y' N% H" R+ \0 `* \In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
6 M% x" U0 N- RDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182
6 |+ R8 _- l" Z9 t% uModulating the Input ......................... 183
* a, p/ w: p7 {0 R' SLine Injector ............................ 184
1 c. m/ A: s# e0 k! E) C2 N/ K- QCurrent Injector ......................... 1884 ]- X" T) q5 o, U; D& R
DC Amplifier ........................... 189
$ x6 Z9 o% h+ A: F' s* qChoosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
2 a1 H I% } ?) G* b' L; |0 `VNA .................................. 189! M6 [, W( c' v/ l+ A! `
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189, x, Z; y6 E- H* v/ l6 d" V
Oscilloscope ............................ 190 A+ y- t* v) g4 F6 ~
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190/ T9 E" K e. [) ? M
Endnotes .................................... 200
7 U: m$ `4 e2 M 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201% Z* C( f! Y5 ?5 X o w
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
6 Y' F3 g. d9 qSeries Linear Regulators ................. 2015 b& t5 E. W2 i3 w' n ~3 W& i
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201( g( S9 r- x$ @
POL Regulators ......................... 203
/ J, ]/ t O/ W- nOperational Amplifiers .................. 204
/ f% G; b+ }3 Q6 X) AModulating the Output Current ................ 204
; g0 a" X" c5 l* TCurrent Injector ......................... 205
3 i: X# n# g3 SDC Bias Injector ........................ 2055 a) [9 T2 A, K( c
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205) u" u6 W9 }. `' X" L: O
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
. }* n8 I0 w. Y. `& Z. Y8 ^Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
& c2 B7 Y- g6 N1 Q7 x; oCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209+ a# y0 s# I. ]1 q$ F. g6 \! z' {
Indirect Measurement ......................... 2093 Y# A4 v9 f( G T$ a/ C
Endnotes .................................... 216
+ t' z3 c6 e" K. C 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217& w1 `# U$ o/ b7 d2 A
Generating the Transient ....................... 217
9 f9 _8 @. F$ S) _& ?3 ZCurrent Injector versus Electronic Load .... 2175 g/ S& L% i! B0 ^
Slew Rate .............................. 219& [5 r- N& ]/ J6 P2 P, b
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221
* l' D1 W; c# N2 D5 H% D5 K Contents 5 h/ f5 [: T4 v' e! _$ |* c
xi( h& S* j" z1 f; ~: M g
Measuring the Response(s) ..................... 223! I7 h# k$ |0 o$ }: z# ~! G
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
2 M( t( B# r9 Q, \0 Q, D$ CNotes about Averaging .................. 224$ l. l, H: [, R" c# `
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 2269 E& S; N& ^3 E1 W* ^0 t
Endnotes .................................... 232( N# W* R7 f8 k# R- r
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
( G6 T# e4 s" C7 }% U. OSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234; A; n7 j3 }3 S( A& Q1 p4 k
In or Out of System ..................... 234' \+ g( u1 ]5 ?( ?7 v4 ^0 a
Direct or Indirect ....................... 2343 P+ N' [, x8 Y
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 2341 a2 y/ P+ X6 ^- N5 ?
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235
! d |+ Y% J& APassive Scope Probes .................... 235
: h% ^+ ^$ k! I8 J: oActive Scope Probes ..................... 2366 R" R$ y. c. f. z0 q1 `& S4 j
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236( w* @1 U- ]! ~
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237! @3 U( `& Y+ K. `. |# ^5 F* o: C
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 2523 {0 z9 k- t% V# ?
Endnotes .................................... 252
* f9 J$ f: ?1 \0 U# k+ Y 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
) y) \! e9 p% N. l/ S+ ~% D0 ~Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
/ t, U' ]! n2 e" B0 g, MCascading Rise Times ................... 256) j: L o7 w: m
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
9 i: K+ X9 Z2 y: lLimiting ............................. 257
3 C4 ?7 X1 d# x* R" bSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
7 r; N& D& v$ n" \% v- J' dInterpolation ................................. 2641 [. [0 V$ o- d* w/ X0 M+ T; M
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
1 a% R) i+ L# y2 sEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
- f1 O _ a( j' l: o: b0 d8 dThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267$ `" V, v! C, `5 q0 [: d
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
4 U; D4 r. f$ f5 x' t" a1 p8 bProbes ....................................... 269
4 c. I" v3 K$ q9 C& D2 KEndnotes .................................... 273
% {4 D) C" a, ~4 _) W- i* |& ?3 H 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 2752 o+ `- F0 a# x- x Q
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
: B P$ a* K* L% yThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 2775 G+ @4 n- }" h+ K" I) P
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
2 t' j' P( d! {- w5 V SThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
1 k" z: P7 g; Y0 ]. v' l$ ~Spectrum Gating .............................. 281, d8 i" Z. K9 K& l5 X5 Q1 @
Endnotes .................................... 295$ D$ o" r! [# w; d
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
. {( s/ V/ u2 r2 a8 z2 G: P( [6 PTime Domain ................................. 297
$ }' n- Q5 E- P" HTime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
. d9 s. @1 L# N( U4 H0 o, E0 B2 }Calibration ................................... 2998 B) K) k$ u+ A) i/ @' @9 o' b
Reference Plane ............................... 300( G( F* H; W5 M+ N/ }
xii u' u$ c$ s; T. @* J
Contents
1 ]1 u1 P; v" _; I2 NSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
1 a; G* g: F' ~8 ~( u! x; [Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3043 p# b+ N- \- }) \9 L" T
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 3075 [6 d7 K3 t5 U# I# Z5 h
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 3141 d3 k4 w0 E- H; @' l% W
Endnotes .................................... 316% X% ]$ N1 h/ L4 I$ @: D
Index ....................................... 319 |
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