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contents
, Y) U/ i9 a' }4 x* m m" g, M: R- @' l% j, b- C
1 Introduction ................................. 1; k ^1 t8 ~- y3 Q
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
' y' ]+ f5 y" g7 a* MWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2% O2 ?; ?. z- u
The General Format of This Book ............... 2( s+ _2 B7 ]9 T$ n$ d: ^1 S q
Why Measure .......................... 3
r! i0 h: R* nObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
3 j" m( U1 }" T% ]7 i& B# |Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
( D) |8 F5 n6 \8 D+ o2 K- @# eTroubleshooting ........................ 5- k% u- C1 R; E" e
Validation or Verification ................. 73 p) N+ T- j# z( A
Terminology ........................... 70 K! ~" m( m) @ z) L( f: {
2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11- p' P7 u: P, b% `: w
Cause No Damage ............................ 112 I( D$ O4 u+ H+ E4 b+ J
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 118 J, |7 e2 m9 z; M1 l! I
Validate the Test Setup and
/ c, H* p4 u, J$ k3 c, b$ D @Measurement Limits ........................ 12& A7 c5 z+ v/ V$ h; j
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 144 V/ K; v; {. k( G( w! t
Noninvasive versus Invasive
4 H+ h, t9 O. W5 j0 UMeasurement ........................ 14' x# D. H7 B. T: b
In situ Measurement .................... 14
1 ~5 w* E. U6 ~ T; s) R- YIndirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
1 e9 X2 S! V: i! xDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15, J% H% [5 I$ i/ C
The Test Engineer and Contact
& ], ]& b( w# \6 q8 f8 H% _Information .......................... 15
. p- P. ]5 k% w' F3 ?. ]The Purpose of the Test .................. 16+ G, B: C( O7 a/ c/ z' y# l/ p. a
Simulated or Expected Results if
8 O5 q4 r/ x- r: D: lAvailable ............................ 17
6 f3 a; n: Q! o; u- P* b5 g7 aThe Date and Physical Location
9 K$ Y0 d5 c- H! v/ U& ]of the Testing ........................ 18
7 g) } x) h0 e) K/ n% p1 YOperational Test Environment # H1 W; K: J' |
and Conditions ....................... 18
0 H9 h& }4 P. z* T& x* JThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment
- U) a" Z4 h; J, C(Including Probes) and Verification That - V% e% X5 N7 K+ @" P* r/ k7 C6 Z
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
) X" z; z+ p4 }2 k, Y- q4 bSetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19* c* ?) b$ G+ B& F2 r
Measurement Annotations and + N4 ?! ]7 w. f+ t6 J
Comments .......................... 20* C' N+ p0 j) B$ M, y& B5 X
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
$ K' X9 q: \" A! k9 B* c9 R1 e8 R+ _
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21% k. v) Y$ U: ?5 Y
Sensitivity ................................... 21
+ E, {0 F, P7 f( }: Y6 VNoise Floor .................................. 220 U% V# o6 M6 W2 ^% f' K! q
Dynamic Range .............................. 22
( Z. @9 p* l6 Q, Q4 n7 lNoise Density ................................ 27
9 m0 A2 i1 p9 A/ r/ e5 KSignal Averaging ............................. 31
: _+ T4 {9 a. K6 Z6 y6 AScaling ...................................... 33* G. d: ~$ \, K
Attenuators .................................. 34
# j, c1 K6 E4 MPreamplifiers ................................. 35/ p7 T; B+ y# N3 h) N. C
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36/ o: g5 B7 i) z
Measurement Domains ........................ 38* l% M. `; [& D9 D3 b5 `+ F9 M
Frequency Domain ...................... 38) h) g" G$ R* t7 e
Gain and Phase ......................... 38& @$ K, }; D" }" a/ J8 n
S-Parameters ........................... 38
' H2 F; x# @. O9 Q+ WImpedance ............................. 39
2 C9 L+ l+ e4 |2 M% eTime Domain ........................... 40
5 m) u$ K- J. ESpectrum Domain ....................... 42
& {8 x; Q. q, V* ^, X, j1 uComparing Domains .................... 44/ |4 @/ c J$ y: ]% J# @( ?
Endnotes .................................... 46
: G5 m. x/ z# Q7 q4 i/ V ^ 4 Test Instruments ............................. 474 d* E" a" A# H4 F- Q' I; }
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector ; }& x, P8 ~6 {
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
& c6 I9 b+ O* \5 mOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49$ y) N) Y) ^1 J4 h8 |% I
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50
$ w* s+ ?: m4 o- ROscilloscopes ................................. 50
! S7 o* t; e# cTeledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
& ?4 W- x* r0 W+ l% R4 m: g: k; `Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52 W/ s# k! c8 g; M
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
. P# B. X' W; UTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
+ M- B& l$ L4 w. ATeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55/ K9 _+ _! ?) F, _6 p% R, u" x
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 562 F- {9 ^" G$ {2 L
Teledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
8 P. t9 e7 k3 T! ]Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58
# \7 P4 E0 [1 `1 N- cOMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
! N2 r! q2 B' H$ H# d' NSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59 T/ |; l# O. A5 E6 g* q
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 59& A9 i, j& b; J
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60% c# ?, w) r, J$ a- ]
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
; _( I) \1 e( _* A* S/ bSignal Generators ............................. 62
8 I8 N+ ~6 {% v2 p0 r7 ^Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
% O- ?2 l4 p' C& P. n( K, NTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 633 H" ]: K. ~# s0 O9 U Y
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63/ g6 A% m- C: E* E8 z2 ?' _
2 l$ _* A0 d' h$ d, A/ O* c2 c& W
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63. K/ z4 }+ ]' ^, t8 A$ N% g- s
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
6 C# U" Q; s& b! c) g* kAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
- U" b1 b( j; ?. G" l, e1 Z 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69 O" @- I+ f7 u8 \2 x/ C
Voltage Probes ................................ 691 N! X# V) z1 w" ~) d& U
Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70' ] u- Y+ p+ O* q7 N+ ]& E
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
8 p6 Y0 s9 o; r2 ~" _7 W# k' TConfirming Measurements ............... 743 k |: b/ s3 p0 y
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 750 u2 \- X$ R& t$ q H( A
Passive Probes .......................... 77/ i. j, }- `# A, {
Active Probes .......................... 790 ^5 b+ K! o: ~
Differential Probes ...................... 79
" G% J, Z3 Z% nSpecialty Probes ........................ 80
1 `9 @' O& E T- l7 AOther Connections ...................... 91
9 G: _% k* a" {! `8 F3 X& B# K- |Endnotes .................................... 91* G: u/ x% ~* }
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
* `$ Q3 R: h6 v$ E9 u1 eNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 938 s# y) l, a/ b- F: d. X
Internal Noise .......................... 95
' M- a9 [/ ]: I" dPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 957 R4 O% i" H3 H6 N9 Z" b
Output Impedance ...................... 99- D6 F/ v0 i5 m; K# l+ n! V
Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99
- n! S, B) G/ A- s- ?Control Loop Stability ......................... 1016 N6 Q3 `+ H2 `
Impact on Output Impedance ............ 101
% O2 Z1 C! F* j$ d) n/ I8 p3 eImpact on Noise ........................ 102
8 K: w& W4 V- ~! k+ I8 M. k* Y: wImpact on PSRR ........................ 102/ _* C5 h& P" t% P
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103
0 U7 i: w3 |: w% bHow Poor Stability Propagates through
: [6 X' Y2 J# b& G8 }# Pthe System ................................. 103
$ [0 {- S* s- q ]2 z- mAdding the PDNs ....................... 106
4 P$ l# O. F1 r# {5 REndnotes .................................... 108! { q; ]5 s: a9 G6 X8 H
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109/ q) B! S9 y! B* U% s7 }
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109* Y6 a7 [4 D5 z1 j" i
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109+ ]) ^7 B2 s/ B; R
Two-Port Measurements ................. 1232 c9 n- q$ O2 {+ H% j
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139% E/ p: m; t# ?" D8 ]2 N
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
/ e! e- J7 X- z4 ] k1 WEndnotes .................................... 148
- W8 x5 H9 G* y1 c+ j4 j 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
2 p0 p1 b+ u# T' x! WStability and Why It Matters .................... 151" ?7 [7 C. Y6 F( `
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151# {! s3 N! ^) U
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
# H- F5 q: h5 `0 y5 C( v/ K5 SMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153
# u9 x' I+ H1 [ rBode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
9 z2 [4 l# W. o1 x, m) d; Fx. Y" i) F D- A
Contents. i2 Q" D Y: ^# j' X) ?
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159
5 Q3 \# D) {" F9 N1 k: @Injection Devices ........................ 161
1 |" r5 J7 H7 A' {Small Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164% h" _( B, Q7 ~3 P- a: Z8 j
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
" L5 C, n4 P3 gON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
+ N- {( Z) d F) c1 y0 r& mForward Measurements .................. 171( y+ ^6 F3 L6 n2 B6 u
Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
0 O" _0 `+ b( l3 c# z# O3 VNoninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 1741 p7 \8 @% C5 v% u6 f" p
Endnotes .................................... 179
6 n. r1 u2 B/ k. L; U6 L
$ Q% A# ]- C; y' M* i* Z7 D2 J/ b9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181$ y+ T' H: h8 l& i* @
Measurement Methods ........................ 182/ b* @9 a: i/ Q S) w! l( r
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
; N4 M E* N0 z7 p6 y' nDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182' }) u/ U, g- d5 h6 S
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
8 y1 t7 a2 v& K `- D0 q+ iLine Injector ............................ 184
$ m( _0 i' t! x, o+ ^ W- V0 FCurrent Injector ......................... 1882 N2 T. q3 _3 `+ n: \ ]3 k
DC Amplifier ........................... 189
% p! y- H1 [3 F& _; _; dChoosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
: Y. h _: I& f* b Y, aVNA .................................. 189
; I5 N0 f P: T7 o$ s# I$ h) wSpectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
2 [. X) l# X5 V) k3 }6 K: n YOscilloscope ............................ 1903 R8 [7 i) ?. N( h& u* i
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
6 c$ L/ V' d- L3 ?/ W+ ?" WEndnotes .................................... 200
- K k4 [( r0 s+ w8 F 10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
- R' f* x+ r) t& z8 Y i& `Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
( c. {" l7 d: G; l- y; S tSeries Linear Regulators ................. 2018 j- Z- w4 g& f2 x' E8 v: n; k
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201- F* ^/ A5 N& L' ^! D- J; }+ M% |) _( f
POL Regulators ......................... 203
3 x0 p- a1 m4 J7 POperational Amplifiers .................. 204, a! y+ o: x& M! {7 b
Modulating the Output Current ................ 2047 w3 c! s2 [8 C2 G# c6 R3 D
Current Injector ......................... 205
% g# g8 L/ q2 C, a$ z5 m2 Y8 qDC Bias Injector ........................ 2054 S$ D$ s4 v: w$ Q- q
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205. U) L: X' j3 ^; W3 N
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
7 f0 _ @! X5 g) qMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
% ?; H- i5 |6 a9 s4 N% \4 dCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
5 J. o7 W+ Q. r/ N% YIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
8 r" E. w* f3 G! A% S* s- {Endnotes .................................... 216
4 G. X! l2 I* m0 I 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2172 \5 o0 N0 a! k" K+ i0 M( u* ^7 ^7 I
Generating the Transient ....................... 2177 ^8 n9 k$ V: J8 \- \
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217' w& H$ P r% w8 ~# R9 `
Slew Rate .............................. 219
" u/ D3 z! P5 k4 u0 @2 ICurrent Modulation Waveform ........... 221
' q) W- P: z" M, K! Q Contents * |0 s5 f/ R3 G+ b
xi
- M( m' O% i9 n, ]; _& hMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
) ?: M' ?# s9 A" eLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
2 h. Y5 A2 d) Y% vNotes about Averaging .................. 224
8 ]! O N( V2 {4 y; W) E' M! t) j% NSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226: p6 h2 ^& G5 K' A2 ]
Endnotes .................................... 232. S# L5 |! x' m0 ?# n
12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
' n' G* b/ G6 Z* U5 K" w2 nSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 234* N; e- U% ~4 c ?) h U
In or Out of System ..................... 234& n" Y' A3 s% D, |4 D! h" V
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234* ]% b" X0 @1 V4 a; \; o
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 234% Z) A9 C7 ?0 v) F+ m
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235
. A; b. i3 _1 I& y5 c' J% [3 vPassive Scope Probes .................... 2358 J9 i4 w$ N K
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
" y/ G0 S$ }7 O# r7 O) }Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
5 ?" c. K& U9 S% {) \/ s4 } q/ mChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2370 ~; U) g2 l2 G( u- y5 ~
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252# }* K+ M6 g7 E
Endnotes .................................... 252
. V6 Z6 Q* e; _. N7 u 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253
2 b! ]" ~$ Z5 h- ]' D. m3 U& DRelating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
# P v5 j3 I7 n, l5 x4 i8 Z& ^Cascading Rise Times ................... 256& e( ]: t7 u$ L6 ], w; }
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
! Z( Q& ?% {: `2 \* J; zLimiting ............................. 257
0 k% q! e) W$ [: {+ g3 L5 F' {0 fSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
' Z0 ^6 `/ e# f/ h6 RInterpolation ................................. 264
* c w% W( } K. Z7 p+ ?* Y& j9 DCoaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
0 _' h5 e8 p5 n h3 z1 B" aEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
3 R3 E1 K) @4 }) iThe Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
. N& b, C/ E! k1 c! a0 u( x! dPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
0 P. v* I' {7 C4 vProbes ....................................... 269' B3 d7 L; f) L+ z5 P" [1 J8 ~: ]
Endnotes .................................... 273" Q8 ?3 p0 P3 W5 u
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
4 _4 t, h- y% p* GThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
% V% k. C' U' I' {The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
1 R2 \( W5 g3 fProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
6 ~/ p" P d& w7 n; PThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
8 T5 ?5 t; M- x/ V8 BSpectrum Gating .............................. 281. i2 \4 K4 |0 G, S
Endnotes .................................... 295( x0 z* N) o2 [1 i/ x: T1 r/ r" h
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
5 S* H/ I8 x7 B% u6 T3 ~Time Domain ................................. 297& W) I1 o3 q+ G, C- F3 _" E
Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298* b! B1 y* b7 R7 K+ Q
Calibration ................................... 299
) ^/ v( g9 H5 i! v1 |0 tReference Plane ............................... 300
\$ ]7 B8 v# L; U- z' ~) ]xii$ O7 f5 {. L7 Z! N z
Contents; N3 O8 q4 m: B% a4 g/ F
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
: B5 E/ |4 S) G: `' _7 OInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304' H3 E" U0 l" r* u
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
8 c% `5 u4 G' D) xS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314* D+ H9 R1 i, P, X, u+ \& O3 S
Endnotes .................................... 3169 o \% A/ ^) k R
Index ....................................... 319 |
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